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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



Chap, Copyright No.. 

Shelf. 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



ADVANCED 



English Grammar 



/ 

JOHN HART, 

Principal of several schools, and Author of 
Lectures on English, &c. 



B. F. Johnson Publishing Co., 

Richmond, Virginia. 

1898. 



TWO COPIES RECEIVED. 

Library of Co&gc««& 
Office of t\w 

DEC 1 9 Wd 

Rogist.r of Copjrl 8 )it% 

TEiiii 



49467 



Copyright, 1898, 

BY 

B. F. JOHNSON PUBLISHING CO., 
Richmond, Va. 



SECOND COPV, 




-^«>^§«5W»— 



THIS book is dedicated to that large number of my old 
pupils who have gone into the profession of teaching 
and who have expressed the wish to have, in con- 
venient form, for their own students, the same direct and 
simple presentation of the essentials of English Grammar 
which they used themselves when in my classes. 



i-mt^*— 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Sketch of the English Tongue . . 9 

Sources of Words 11 

Alphabet 12 

Classification of Letters 14 

Classification of Words 15 

Propositions and Sentences 15 

Subject and Predicate 16 

Divisions of Grammar 17 

Etymology 18 

Parts of Speech 18 

The Noun 21, 114-118 

Gender in the Noun 24 

Distinctions of Gender 25-27 

Person, Number and Case 28 

Formation of Plural 28-33 

Case 33 

Possessive Case 33-34 

Paradigm of Noun 34 

The Verb 37, 56, 125-130 

Voice 37 

Mood 37-38 

Tense 38-39 

Person and Number 39 

Transitive and Intransitive Verb 40 

Regular and Irregular Verb 40 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Principal Parts of Verb 41 

Conjugation 41 

Auxiliary Verb 41 

Unipersonal Verb 41 

Various Forms of Conjugation 55 

Syntax of Noun 57 

Syntax of Verb 63 

The Pronoun 67-77, 119-121 

Personal Pronoun 67-69 

Reflexive Pronoun 69 

Intensive Pronoun 70 

Interrogative Pronoun 70 

Demonstrative Pronoun 71 

Anticipative Pronoun 71 

Relative Pronoun 72 

Syntax of the Pronoun 74 

The Adjective 73-87, 122-124 

Limiting Adjective 78 

Article 79 

Qualifying Adjective 83 

Comparison 83 

Irregular Comparison 84 

Syntax of the Adjective 87 

The Adverb 90-96 

Adverbial Phrase 94 

Syntax of the Adverb 96 

The Preposition 99-103 

Syntax of the Preposition 102 

The Exclamation 104-105 



ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 7 

Page. 

The Conjunction 106-108 

Syntax of the Conjunction 107-108 

Variables 109-111 

Syntax 113, 131-135 

Infinitive 126-129 

Subjunctive 129-130 

Analysis 137-140 

Irregular Verb 142-148 

Selections 149-157 

Punctuation 159-197 



ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PART I. 



BRIEF SKETCH OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 

THE birthplace of the English Language was the island of 
Britain. The earliest inhabitants of this island were 
Celts who, at the time that they became known to our present 
history, had lost all record of the circumstances of their settle- 
ment in Britain, and who are regarded to be a part of the great 
Celtic race that lived on the continent of Europe in Gaul, the 
present France. 

The language of Britain was pure Celtic up to the year 55 
B. C. At that time Julius Caesar made a campaign into Britain, 
and in A. D. 43 the island was conquered by the Romans and 
held until the year 426 as a Roman province. During these 
years a considerable number of military and legal terms, and 
a number of local names, were grafted from the Latin on the 
Celtic speech. 

The great influence, however, in the formation of the Eng- 
lish language was the invasion of Britain by the Saxons, begun 
in 449. These conquerors and their associates and kindred, 
the Jutes and Angles, came from the low country of northern 
Germany, and made a terribly complete conquest of the island. 
The Angles gave their name ' * Engla-land ' ' to the whole terri- 
tory, and the native language gave place almost entirely to the 
Anglo-Saxon, the language of the conquerors. 

In 596 priests from Rome began the conversion of the peo- 
ple, and, in the main, grew steadily in influence and numbers. 
By this means a considerable body of Latin words became part 
of the language of the island. 

2 



10 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Beginning in 870 large numbers of Danes made inroads and 
settlements in Britain, and in 1017 a Danish prince, Canute, 
became king. During these years a number of Danish words 
were added to the language, but the value of this addition 
cannot be estimated because the Danish speech was essentially 
the same as the Saxon. 

The next event which affected the language was the con- 
quest of England by the Normans in 1066. The language of 
these conquerors was Norman- French, derived from a mixture 
of Latin and Celtic, and, as the island remained under the gov- 
ernment of the Normans until all the various races became 
one, it is hard to overestimate the effect that the Norman 
conquest has had on the present condition of the English 
tongue. 

About the beginning of the 16th century the "revival of 
learning" took place. From that time to the present it has 
been the custom to make — mainly out of Latin and Greek — 
such new words as are demanded by the advance in the 
sciences, and a large number of terms have come into English 
by this means. 

While the several sources enumerated above have all con- 
tributed words to the English language, they have, with the 
exception of Saxon, had almost no effect on the grammar of 
the tongue. The frame-work of English is wholly Saxon, and 
its minor grammatical peculiarities are almost entirely so. 

English is now the every-day speech of 140,000,000 people. 
In the age of Elizabeth — 300 years ago — it was spoken by 
about 5,000,000. This is a rate of increase that has never 
been equalled by any other tongue, and the character of the 
peoples who speak it, its present rate of growth, its adaptation 
to every purpose of human speech, and the ease with which it 
can be acquired as a spoken language might seem to warrant 
the claims of those enthusiasts who predict that English will 
become in time the one surviving language of the earth. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



11 



The following table gives approximately the number of 
words in English from the principal sources. The proportion 
of words in the language as it is spoken is very different from 
that in the dictionaries, because, in speech, the commoner 
words are frequently repeated. As most of these words that 
occur so often are Saxon, the proportion of Saxon is far higher 
in the language in motion, as spoken, than in the language at 
rest, as in the lexicons : 

Celtic ........ 100 words. 

In Lexicons. ( In Use. 
Latin (all sources) . . . 60 per cent. 30 per cent. 

Anglo-Saxon 25 " 60 

Greek 10 " 5 

All others 5 " 5 




12 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ALPHABET, ETC. 

Written languages are either Symbolic or Sylla- 
bic. In a symbolic language a written sign stands 
for an idea, and the language must contain a vast 
number of these signs. Many ancient languages 
were symbolic, and, in modern times, Chinese and 
Japanese are so. 

In a syllabic language a written sign stands for 
a sound or syllable, and these signs, which we call 
letters, can be combined in many different ways. 
By this means a small number of letters may be 
made to represent a countless number of sounds. 
English, as well as most other languages, is syllabic. 

The alphabet of a syllabic language is the arrange- 
ment of all the signs that stands for sounds. The 
English alphabet is almost identical with the Latin, 
and the present form of our written letters is sim- 
plified from the Roman letters. It is likely that all 
letters were originally pictures. 

The letters used in printing attained their present 
shape, the capitals directly from the Roman forms, 
and the small letters by gradual alteration, from the 
introduction of printing, 1474, down to about 1800, 
when the long s went out of use. In addition to 
the Roman letters we employ "J," introduced by 
the early Dutch printers and suggested by the form 
of the last i in Roman numerals, as vij for 7 ; "U," 
a form of the Roman V, and " W," which was the 
Latin V doubled. 



INTRODUCTORY. 13 



The written alphabet in English contains twenty- 
six letters ; the alphabet as pronounced contains 
forty-three sounds. This difference is produced by 
the variety of the sound given to the same letter, as 
the six sounds of "a" illustrated in ale, hat, rare, 
farm, task, all. It is also true that, in many cases, 
different letters have the same sound, as in the use 
of "c" for "a" or "k" ; the use of "y" for 
i, &c. 

Those letters which can be sounded without 
changing the position of the organs of speech are 
called vowels. They are a, e, i, o, u and also w and 
y when they end a syllable. In this case w is 
sounded like u, as in how, and y is , sounded like i, 
as in boy. Vowels often change in words which are 
of the same origin — different forms of the same 
word — as band, bend, bind, bond, bundle. Two 
vowels pronounced as one form a diphthong, as oi 
in toil. When two vowels come together and but 
one is pronounced the other is termed silent, as "a" 
in boat. Final " e " in English is silent, as tree, 
horse. 

All the letters except vowels are called consonants 
because they must be sounded by the help of vowels. 
Consonants form the real body of a word, and, in 
general, words that are kin to each other contain the 
same consonants. (See example under vowels.) 
The consonants are divided into classes as 
follows : 



14 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Mutes. 






Spirants. 




Dentals . . d 


n 


t 


z 


■s 1 


th 


Gutterals . g 


k 


n g 




h 




Labials . . b 


P 


m 


V 


w f 


wh 


Palatals . . j 


ch 




zh 


sh y 


r 



The dental mutes have their sound stopped by 
the teeth (dens), and the dental spirants have their 
sound slightly prolonged by a breath after the 
tongue leaves the teeth. 

The gutteral mutes have their sounds stopped by 
the throat (gutta), and the spirants have a breath 
after the sound is made. 

The labial mutes have their sound stopped by the 
lips (labium), and the spirants have a breath after 
the sound is made. 

The palatal mutes have their sound stopped by 
the palate (palatum), and the spirants have a breath 
after the sound is made. 

The action of the vocal organs in producing con- 
sonant sounds should be carefully noted and prac- 
ticed until the above classification can be reproduced, 
not as a matter of memory, but as a matter of 
observation and common sense. 



INTRODUCTORY. 15 



CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

According to its form a word is called primitive 
when no simpler word with the same sense can be 
found in the language ; as, man, child. 

It is called derivative when it can be obtained 
from some simpler form ; as, manly, from man ; 
childish, from child. 

A word is called simple when it cannot be divided 
into several words ; as, horse, ox. 

It is called compound when it can be divided into 
several words ; as, horse-fly, ox-cart. 

PROPOSITIONS AND SENTENCES. 

A Proposition is a thought expressed in words, 
and may be principal or dependent. 

A Principal Proposition is one that makes com- 
plete sense by itself; as, Snow melts. It is often 
called Principal Clause. 

A Dependent Proposition is one that does not 
make complete sense by itself, but must be under- 
stood in connection with a principal proposition ; as, 
When the sun shines. It is often called Dependent 
Clause, and modifies some word in the principal 
proposition. 

The distinction is made according to the sense of 
the proposition. 



16 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A Sentence is a collection of words that has some 
meaning, and may be Simple or Complex or Com- 
pound. 

A Simple Sentence is one that contains one princi- 
pal proposition. 

A Complex Sentence is one that contains one prin- 
cipal proposition, and any number of dependent 
propositions. 

A Compound Sentence is one that contains two or 
more principal propositions, and it may or may not 
have dependent propositions in it. 

The distinction is made according to the form of 
the sentence. 

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

Every proposition must consist of two parts — a 
Subject and a Predicate. The subject is that of 
which the declaration is made. The predicate is 
that which makes the declaration. Thus in the 
proposition, Snow melts, a declaration is made about 
snow. Snow is therefore the subject. The word 
melts makes a statement about snow, and melts is 
therefore the predicate. 

A Phrase is a collection of words that has no 
subject or predicate. 

Note. — The names employed in formal grammar, in Eng- 
lish, are entirely of Latin origin, and when a word is given as 
the source of one of these terms, it is understood to be a 
Latin word. 



INTRODUCTORY. 17 



THE DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR. 

Language is the expression of thought. This 
expression commonly takes the form of spoken or 
written words. 

Grammar is the collection of the laws of lan- 
guage. 

A complete grammar should treat of the history 
of the letters in a language, but the subject has 
never been sufficiently investigated and the slight 
sketch already given of the English letters must 
suffice for the purposes of this book. 

It should also treat of the spelling of words (or- 
thography) and of their pronunciation (orthoepy). 
But these — in a living language — are constantly 
changing and are better left to lexicons. 

It should also treat of the order of words in sen- 
tences ; but people know by instinct and early prac- 
tice the order of words in their own language and 
rules on this subject in an English grammar, written 
for English-speaking people, would be needless. 

The other divisions of grammar are Etymology, 
Syntax and Prosody. 

Etymology is the statement of the laws that 
govern the forms of single words. 

Syntax is the statement of the laws by which one 
word influences or governs another, and these two 
are the usual divisions of grammar. 



18 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Prosody is the statement of the laws of poetry, 
and is commonly considered a science by itself. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

The words in a language are divided according to 
their meaning into eight classes called Parts of 
Speech. They are Noun, Verb, Preposition, 
Adjective, Pronoun, Adverb, Exclamation, 
Conjunction. 

A Noun is the name of any person, place or 
thing ; as, James, New York, hat. 

A Verb is a word that declares action or being ; 
as, run, is. Verbs often consist of several words ; 
as, will run, have been. 

A Preposition is a word that shows the relation 
between a noun or pronoun and some other word, 
as in the sentence, Run into the house, where the 
preposition into shows the relation between the noun 
house and the verb run. 

An Adjective is a word that describes or limits 
a noun ; as, tall trees. A rough road. The good 
old man. 

A Pronoun is a word that is used instead of a 
noun ; as in the sentence, John lost his hat, the 
pronoun his is used for John's. 

An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaning 
of a verb or an adjective or another adverb ; as, 
He runs slowly. She is very good. He runs too 
slowly. 



INTRODUCTORY. 19 

An Exclamation is a word used to express some 
emotion ; as, Oh ! Ah ! Exclamations have no rela- 
tion to other words. They are often called inter- 
jections. 

A Conju7ictio7i is a word used to join words or 
phrases or propositions ; as, John and Henry. In 
the day or in the night. I called you, but you did 
not hear. 

In the following exercise state the class to which 
each sentence and proposition belongs, pick out the 
phrases and tell what part of speech each word is. 
Also point out the subjects and the predicates : 

EXERCISE. 

The tree fell in the road. The water deafened us with its 
roar. The kind man gave the beggar some money. You will 
be wet if it rains. James fell from the horse when it reared. 
The train ran so fast that we were greatly frightened. Oh! 
what noise was that ? Robert tried to catch the hare, but she 
ran too fast. Alas ! I fear he will never reach home. Owls 
stay in hollows by day, but by night they search for food. A 
strong wind blew fiercely over the water, but it did not drive 
the sailors from their work. I cannot tell whom you mean. 
The king raised a great army that he might conquer his neigh- 
bors. Do not give him the knife, lest he cut himself with it. 
If we had horses we might ride. When the traveler reached 
the village he found all the guides sick. If we could tell when 
the wolf was coming, we could prepare for him. No man can 
fight successfully unless he has arms. We started to town be- 
cause we wanted some books, but soon turned back when we 
saw the horse was lame. If the river is too high you must 
come home, however anxious you may be to cross. The gun 



20 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

would not have exploded if Henry had not loaded it too 
heavily. Many men have fought through long and dangerous 
wars, and come home at last safe and sound. The family 
moved from England to America, because the cost of living 
was not so great in this country. The lady asked the little 
girl where she lived. Ah, I am sorry for him. Columbus, 
though he had many discouragements, persisted in his voyage 
toward the west until, at last, he came to land. When the 
merchant saw the robbers he ran into the wood and hid in a 
thick tangle of bushes. The mill runs slowly because the water 
is low, but when the rains come the pond will fill again, and the 
wheels will turn as rapidly as ever. The depth of the river 
was so great that we did not try the ford. He was chosen 
king of England because he possessed the wisdom necessary 
to direct the affairs of the country. The solons of the state 
retreated from the capital when the enemy approached. The 
city of London is, in some respects, the capital of the world. 
The clergy of New England were busy in arranging for the 
occasion of the trial. 



THE NOUN. 21 



PART II. 



THE NOUN. 



1. A Noun is a name of a person or a place or a 
thing. The word noun is derived fr©m the Latin 
nomen, a name, through the French nom, and nouns 
are of the following sorts : 

(1) A Common Noun is a general or class name, 
and is given to all objects of the same kind ; as, 
city, town, river, man, cow. 

(2) A Proper Noun is a particular name, and is 
used to point out some one individual of a class ; 
as, James, Mary, London, Washington city. 

In the last word "Washington city," the noun 
city evidently shows the kind of thing spoken of, 
and the noun Washington points out what special 
city is meant. Proper nouns, as such, have no 
meaning. The meanings which they once had (when 
a man's name was Hunter because he hunted, etc.) 
have been lost. They are spelled with a capital letter. 

(3) An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality or 
an action ; as, warmth, cowardice, beauty, distance, 
singing. These nouns are called abstract because 
they name qualities which are considered apart or 
abstracted from things to which they belong. In 



22 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the phrase "a deep river/' the depth is a quality of 
the river, and taken by itself, apart from that which 
has depth, it is called abstract. 

(4) A Material Noun is a common noun which is 
the name of a material ; as, wood, iron, glass, gold. 
These nouns do not naturally have a plural — woods 
meaning different kinds of wood, irons meaning dif- 
ferent kinds of iron, etc. 

(5) A Collective Noun is a common noun which is 
the name of one body containing many individuals ; 
as, army, flock, crowd, herd. If the entire mass is 
considered as one, the noun takes a singular verb ; 
as, The army was beaten. If the individuals form- 
ing the mass are considered to act separately, the 
noun takes a plural verb ; as, The people were 
alarmed at the news. 

(6) Sometimes common nouns become proper ; as, 
the Governor, meaning a particular governor, the 
Queen of England, 

(7) Sometimes proper nouns become common, as 
when we say a man is the Demosthenes of England, 
and use the proper noun Demosthenes in place of 
the common noun orator. So a great American 
soldier might be called the Napoleon of America. 

Refer to Exercise I. and state the class to which 
each noun belongs. 



THE NOUN. 23 



Suggestions for Review Exercise. 

Write five sentences containing a proper noun, 

five containing a common noun, five containing an 
abstract noun, five containing a collective noun, five 

containing a proper noun ' used as a common noun. 
Inflection is the change of form which a word 
undergoes to fit it for its different uses. The inflec- 
tion of nouns and pronouns is called Declension, 
that of verbs is called Conjugation, and that of ad- 
jectives and adverbs is called Comparison. Prepo- 
sitions, Exclamations and Conjunctions have no 
inflection. These last are called Particles, 



24 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



GENDER IN THE NOUN. 

2. There are four Genders or classes of nouns in 
English, according to whether the thing which the 
noun represents is male or female, or may be either 
male or female, or has no sex and so is neither male 
nor female. Gender in English is determined by 
common sense, and is called Natural Gender. In 
languages which determine the gender of a word by 
rules of grammar, it is said to be Grammatical or 
Artificial Gender. 

(1) Nouns which are the names of males are said 
to be Masculine Gender (from mas, a male). 

(2) Nouns which are the names of females are 
said to be Feminine Gender (from femina, a female). 

(3) Nouns which are the names of things that 
have no sex are said to be Neuter Gender (from 
neuter, neither). 

(4) Nouns which are the names of things that 
may be either male or female are said to be Common 
Gender (from communis, common). 

Note. — When a singular noun is used gcnerically, that is, to 
stand for a whole class of things, it is masculine gender ; as, 
The elephant lives in India, he often reaches the age of a hun- 
dred years. 



GENDER IN THE NOUN. 



25 



The use in English allows us to speak of small animals and 
children as neuter gender ; as, The mouse ran into its hole. 
The child hurt its hand. 

An unpleasant but growing use is to refer to moving objects 
as feminine ', as when we say of a train of cars, ' ' Here she 
comes. ' ' 

Things without life are often spoken of as if they were living 
beings (personification). In this way the sun is considered 
masculine, the moon feminine, etc. 

3. The gender of masculine and feminine nouns 
is shown in three ways. (1) By using distinct 
words ; (2) by using an additional word ; (3) by 
adding an ending. 

(1) 
Distinction of Gender by Different Words. 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


bachelor 


spinster 


hart 


roe 


boar 


sow 


horse 


mare 


boy 


girl 


husband 


wife 


brother 


sister 


king 


queen 


buck 


doe 


lord 


lady 


bull 


cow 


man 


woman 


cock 


hen 


monk 


nun 


dog 


bitch 


nephew 


niece 


drake 


duck 


ram 


ewe 


drone 


bee 


son 


daughter 


earl 


countess 


stag 


hind 


father 


mother 


uncle 


aunt 


foal 


filly 


wizard 


witch 


gander 


goose 


youth 


maid 



26 



ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



f2) 
Distinction of Gender by an Additional Word. 



Masculine. 

cock-sparrow 
he-bear 
man-servant 
pea-cock 



Feminine. 

hen -sparrow 
she-bear 
maid-servant 
pea- hen 



(3) 



Distinction of Gender by Adding an Ending to 
Form Feminine. 



r asculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


abbott 


abbess 


hunter 


huntress 


actor 


actress 


Jew 


Jewess 


baron 


baroness 


Joseph 


Josephine 


count 


countess 


lion 


lioness 


deacon 


deaconess 


marquis 


marchioness 


director 


directress 


master 


mistress 


don 


donna 


murderer 


murderess 


duke 


duchess 


negro 


n egress 


emperor 


empress 


patron 


patroness 


enchanter 


enchantress 


poet 


poetess 


executor 


executrix 


prophet 


prophetess 


giant 


giantess 


spinner 


spinster 


heir 


heiress 


sultan 


sultana 


hero 


heroine 


traitor 


traitress 


host 


hostess 


votary 


votaress 



Note. — The ending er so often found in masculine nouns is 
the Anglo-Saxon masculine ending (ere, man). Its corre- 
sponding feminine was ster, as in spinster in list above. The 
commonest feminine termination in English is ess } borrowed 



GENDER IN THE NOUN. 27 

from the Norman- French, and it is by the use of this suffix 
that new feminines are formed in the language. The best usage 
employs such words as author, poet, &c, for both genders, 
and avoids as farias possible the use of the distinctively femi- 
nine forms in ess. A small number of feminines are formed by 
the Greek suffix ine, as in heroine. A small number are formed 
by the South- Europe suffix a, as in sultana. 

In the case of the four words bride, duck, goose and widow 
the masculines are formed from the feminines. 

Suggestions for Review Exercise. 

Write four sentences containing masculine nouns, 
five containing feminine nouns, five containing 
neuter nouns, five containing nouns of the common 
gender. 



S> & & 



28 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PERSON, NUMBER AND CASE. 

4. Nouns have three grammatical forms or prop- 
erties, which vary to suit the use of the word, 
person, number and case. 

5. Person is the character which a word has ac- 
cording as it represents the speaker or the person 
spoken to or the person spoken of. If John is rep- 
resented as speaking, the noun John is said to be 
first person. If he is spoken to, John is said to be 
second person. If he is spoken of, John is said to be 
third person. Nouns are rarely in the first person. 

6. Number is a form of a word to show whether 
it denotes one or more than one. There are, in 
English, two numbers. When a word means but 
one it is said to be Singular Number. When it 
means more than one it is said to be Plural Number. 

(1) The plural is commonly formed from the sin- 
gular by adding s ; as, singular, boy ; plural, boys. 
This method is Norman-French. 

(2) If the last letter of the singular does not 
unite readily with s, the plural is made by adding 
es ; as, box, boxes; church, churches. 

(3) Nouns ending in y with a consonant before it, 
change y into ies ; as, lady, ladies ; enemy, enemies. 

(4) Nouns ending in o add commonly s, sometimes 
es ; as, canto, cantos; potato, potatoes. About 



PERSON, NUMBER AND CASE. 



29 



forty nouns add es. The most common are buffalo, 
cargo, calico, hero, mosquito, motto, negro, potato, 
tomato. 

(5) Some nouns form the plural by the addition 
of the Anglo-Saxon plural ending en or ne ; as, ox, 
oxen ; cow, kine ; brother, brethren ; child, children. 

(6) Some nouns form their plurals by changing 
the vowels in the singular ; as, 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 



loot 


teet man 


men 


goose 
louse 


geese mouse 
lice tooth 


mice 
teeth 


(7) Many nouns which have come 
from other languages retain the plu 
languages ; as, 


into English 
rals of those 


Singular. 

axis 

datum 

medium 


Plural. Singular. 

Latin. 
axes nebula 
data radius 
media radix 

Greek. 


Plural. 

nebulae 

radii 

radices 


analysis 
automaton 


analyses crisis 
automata miasma 

French. 


crises 
miasmata 


batteau 
beau 


batteaux madame 
beaux monsieur 

Italian. 


mesdames 
messieurs 


bandit 


banditti libretto 
Hebrew. 


libretti 


cherub 


cherubim seraph 


seraphim 



30 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(8) A number of nouns — mainly names of fish — < 
have the same form in singular and plural ; as, 



bass 


dace 


mackerel 


cannon 


deer 


perch 


carp 


grouse 


pike 


cod 


heathen 


sheep 



In the use of these nouns the number must, of 
course, be inferred from the context (other words in 
the sentence). If the sentence were, A sheep is 
grazing, the word sheep would be singular. In the 
sentence, I caught ten perch, the w r or *d perch is plural. 

It is worthy of note that these last nouns name things belong- 
ing to the life of those savages who spoke the earliest beginnings 
of English. In general, in all languages, the irregular words 
are those which are connected with the needs and emotions of 
barbarians, and, as the people become civilized and learn some- 
what of the science of speech, the new words that come into 
their languages receive a regular form. These irregular old 
words are frequently called strongs and the newer and more 
regular words in a language are called weak, because the first 
express strong and necessary ideas, etc. 

(9) Some nouns, names of things consisting of 
two similar parts, or of things taken in a body, have 
no singular ; as, 



(a) antipodes 


drawers 


pinchers 


scissors 


tweezers 


bellows 


lungs 


pliers 


shears 


tongs 


breeches 


pantaloons 


scales 


spectacles 


trousers 



PERSON, NUMBER AND CASE. 



31 



(b) 


annals 


dregs 


staggers 




archives. 


embers 


stacks 




ashes 


lees 


victuals 




assets 


oats 


vitals 



The words measles, molasses and mumps belong by their 
form to this class, but they should always be used as singulars. 

(10) A number of words having plural forms are 
always used as singulars ; as, 



amends 


odds small-pox 


wages 


optics 


gallows 


pains thanks 


politics 


ethics 


news 


shambles tidings 


physics 


mathematics 



The three words, alms, riches and eaves, are true singulars in 
spite of their plural forms. An alms was common English in 
1600. Riches is borrowed from French. Eaves is Anglo- 
Saxon efese, an edge. 

(11) A number of words have two plurals with 
different senses ; as, 



Singular. 



Plural. 



Plural. 



brother 


brothers (in a family) 


brethren (in a community) 


cloth 


cloth (kinds of cloth) 


clothes (to wear) 


die 


dies (stamps for shaping) 


dice (game) 


fish 


fishes (separately) 


fish (collectively) 


genius 


geniuses (gifted men) 


genii (spirits) 


index 


indexes (in books) 


indices (in algebraic quan- 
tities) 


pea 


peas (separately) 


pease (collectively) 


penny 


pennies (separately) 


pence (collectively) 


shot 


shots (trials at shooting) 


shot (collectively) 



32 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(12) In forming the plural of compound nouns 
the leading word in the compound has s added to it ; 
as, looker-on, lookers-on ; commander-in-chief, com- 
manders-in-chief. Where both parts of the com- 
pound are nouns, both are frequently pluralized ; 
as, men-servants, knights-templars, women-servants. 
When the last word in the compound is an adjective, 
as in attorney-general, court-martial, etc., the s is 
commonly added to the noun ; as, courts-martial, 
attorneys-general, etc. When the compound noun 
is composed of words which make no complete sense 
until they are all uttered ; as, whip-poor-will, forget 
me-not, etc., the s is added to the last word 

(13) A number of nouns have their last syllable 
man; as, German, Englishman, talisman, etc. Some 
are compounds of man, and some are not. They can 
be tested by seeing if the feminine is formed by sub- 
stituting woman for man ; as, German, Ger-woman ; 
Englishman, English-woman, etc. By this test it 
appears that " Englishman" is a compound of man, 
and " German " is not. Those that are compounds 
of man form their plural in men; as, Englishmen, 
Irishmen, Scotchmen, etc. Those that are not com- 
pounds of man form their plurals by the addition of 
s ; as, Germans, Mussulmans, Turcomans, ottomans, 
talismans, etc. 

(14) Abstract nouns rarely form plurals. When 
they do so these plurals are formed in accordance 
with the laws for common nouns. 



PERSON, NUMBER AND CASE. 33 

(15) Proper nouns take their plural by adding s 
to the singular without any further change ; as, 
Berry, Berry s ; Smith, Smiths, etc. 

Suggestions for Written Exercise. 

Write five sentences containing singular nouns, 
five containing plural nouns, five containing plurals 
formed by adding es, five containing foreign plurals. 

7. Case is a form of a word to show its relation 
to other words in the same sentence. There are 
three cases in English, Nominative, Possessive 
and Objective. The word case comes from the 
Latin casus, a falling, because the Roman gram- 
marians considered the nominative case as a perpen- 
dicular spoke in a wheel, and the other cases as the 
spokes below it that had fallen from the perpendicu- 
lar position. The term decline, to give the cases in 
order, and declension, an orderly arrangement of the 
cases, comes from the same idea. A Paradigm is a 
model or example to show the parts of a word. 

8. In nouns the nominative and objective cases are 
alike in the singular and alike in the plural. The 
difference in their use prevents confusion. 

9. The possessive case is used almost exclusively 
{or proper nouns, and such common nouns as denote 
persons. 



34 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The preposition of with the objective case takes 
its place in other common nouns. Thus we say, 
John's hat, but, The roof of the house. 

(1) The possessive singular is formed by adding 
an apostrophe and an s ('s) to the nominative singu- 
lar. This ending (V) is the Anglo-Saxon possessive 
ending es. In many proper nouns the nominative 
ends in s. The possessive may then be formed by 
adding an apostrophe only ; as, James' ; or it may 
be formed by adding an apostrophe and s ('s) ; as, 
James's. In compound nouns the apostrophe and 
s are added to the last word ; as, son-in-law's. 

(2) In the plural, if the last letter of the nomina- 
tive be s the possessive is formed by placing the 
apostrophe after the s ; as, girls, girls'. But if the 
last letter of the nominative plural is not s (as in 
men) the possessive is formed by adding the apos- 
trophe and s (s) as in the singular. Example : men, 
men's. 

10. Below is the declension of the noun. 

Sing. Plur, Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 

Norn. . boy boys lady ladies man men 

Poss. . boy's boys' lady's ladies' man's men's 
Obj. . . boy boys lady ladies man men 

In the following exercise classify the nouns, and 
tell their gender, person, number and case : 



PERSON, NUMBER AND CASE. 35 

EXERCISE I. 

Alms, Ann, anvil, army, aunt, bachelor, banditti, beauty, 
beaux, boat, box, brother-in-law's, camp, cargo, carts, cat, cher- 
ubim, churches, children, cities, cloth, Cora's, countess, deer, 
drake, dice, Doctor Jones, duchess, eaves, eggs, Englishman, 
father 5 feet, fishes, France, giantess, girl's, goose, he-bears, hen, 
honesty, horses, Irishman, iron, John Smith, keys, King George, 
ladies, length, Lewis's, London, Lucy's, Major- General, 
Mary's, measles, men's, molasses, moons, morning, Mr. Green, 
mumps, Mussulmans, Nebulae, negro, optics, oxen, pease, 
physics, pinchers, potato, Potomac river, queens, Queen 
Mary's, rivers, Robert's, sailors, salmon, seraphim, shot, silver, 
sister's, sultana, sun's, talismans, tree, victuals, widow, witch's, 
wood. 

Direction 1. — Go over above exercise and give 
feminine of each masculine, and masculine of each 
feminine. 

Direction 2. — Go over above exercise and give 
plural of each singular, and singular of each plural. 



36 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

REVIEW OF NOUNS. 
(To be Written.) 

1. How many classes of nouns are there? and define each 

sort and give example. 

2. Make a sentence containing each sort of nouns. 

3. Define gender. How many genders are there ? and give 

names. 

4. In how many ways is gender shown ? and give examples. 

5. What masculine nouns are formed from feminines ? 

6. Make a sentence containing a noun of each gender. 

7. Define person, and explain fully. 

8. Define number. How many numbers are there ? and give 

names. 

9. In how many ways is the plural formed from the singular? 

and give examples. 

10. Write ten nouns that form plural in s. 

11. Write ten nouns that form plural in es. 

12. Write five nouns that have same form for singular and 

plural. 

13. Make a sentence containing a noun of each number. 

14. Define case. How many cases are there ? and give names. 

15. How is the possessive singular formed ? 

16. How is the possessive plural commonly formed ? 

17. In what nouns is it formed by adding (' s) ? 

18. Write out the declension of five nouns. 



THE VERB. 37 



THE VERB. 

11. A Verb is a word that declares action or 
being, and every proposition must contain a verb as 
its predicate to show what the subject does or is. The 
word verb is derived from verbum, a word. 

Since verbs make statements, they must employ 
different forms to enable them to make statements 
in various ways. The grammatical forms, or prop- 
erties, of a verb are Voice, Mood, Tense, Number 
and Person. From vox, voice ; modus, manner ; 
tempus, time ; numerus y number ; persona, person. 

Voice. 

12. Voice is a form of the verb to show whether 
the subject acts or is acted upon. There are in 
English two voices. 

(1) The Active Voice represents the subject as 
acting ; as, John shot. 

(2) The Passive Voice represents the subject as 
acted upon; as, John was shot. In general any 
sentence with a passive verb can be changed to a 
sentence with an active verb without altering the 
meaning, and vice versa. The existence of voice in 
verbs is then not so much a matter of necessity as 
it is an elegance of language. 



33 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Mood. 

13. Mood is a form of the verb to permit the 
making of statements in various ways. There are 
in English five moods. 

(1) The Indicative Mood states as a fact or 
asks a question ; as, The tree _/£//. Who has come? 

(2) The Potential Mood states as possible or 
necessary ; as, The man can sing. The hole must 
be mended. 

(3) The Subjunctive Mood states as doubtful ; 
as, If we come. 

(4) The Imperative Mood states as a command 
or entreaty ; as, Shut the door. Have mercy. 

These four moods all confine their statement to a 
particular subject, and so are called the Finite Verb. 

(5) The Infinitive Mood is so named because it 
does not confine its statement to any particular 
subject. It includes all the verb besides the finite 
verb. 

Note. — It is not necessary to include a formal potential 
mood in the English verb. Exactly the same result would be 
reached by regarding may, can, must, &c, as the principal 
verb, and letting them govern an infinitive with to omitted. 

Tense. 

14. Tense is a form of the verb to show ; first, the 
time of the action, and second, whether the action 
is complete or incomplete. 



THE VERB. 39 



15. There are three times — Present, Past and 
Future, and an action may be complete or incom- 
plete in any of these times. 

The tenses for incomplete action are named from 
the times — Present Tense, Past Tense and 
Future Tense, and are called simple tenses. 

16. The tenses for complete (or perfect) action 
are named by placing the word perfect in each of the 
former names — Present Perfect Tense, Past 
Perfect Tense, Future Perfect Tense. They 
are called the compotmd tenses. 

17. The present tense shows incomplete action in 
present time. 

The present perfect tense shows complete action 
in present time. 

The past tense shows incomplete action in past 
time. 

The past perfect tense shows complete action in 
past time. 

The future tense shows incomplete action in future 
time. 

The future perfect tense shows complete action in 
future time. 

Person and Number. 

18. Person and number are forms by which the 
verb is related to its subject. If the subject be 
singular, the verb must be singular, &c. 



40 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

19. According to their meaning verbs are divided 
into two classes : 

(1) Transitive Verbs are those whose action 
takes place upon an object. 

(2) Intransitive Verbs are those whose action 
does not take place upon an object. 

The word transitive (transeo) means to pass from 
one to another, and the word intransitive (in-transeo) 
means not to pass from one to another. The names 
are exactly suited to the facts about the verbs. 

20. It often happens that the same verb is some- 
times used transitively and sometimes intransitively; 
as, The child breathes ; The maiden breathed a 
prayer. 

21. It also happens frequently that an intransitive 
verb becomes a transitive verb by having a prepo- 
sition joined to it ; as, The man laughed ; The man 
laughed at the jest. 

22. According to their form verbs are divided 
into two classes : 

(1) Regular Verbs are those in which the past 
tense of the indicative mood, and the past participle 
are formed by adding ed to the present ; as, learn — 
learnt — learnt. 

(2) Irregular Verbs are those in which the past 
tense and past participle are formed in any other 
way ; as, sing — sang — sung. 



THE VERB. 41 



23. The three parts given above — the present in- 
dicative, the past indicative and the past parti- 
ciple — are called the Principal Parts of a verb, 
and may be readily found by observing what forms 

fit in the following blanks : Now I . Yesterday 

I . I have ; as, Now I come. Yesterday I 

came. I have come. 

The principal parts are so called because the 
whole verb is built up on them. 

24. The Conjugation of a verb is the arrange- 
ment of all its parts in the proper order. 

25. Auxiliary Verbs are those which aid in the 
conjugation of other verbs by forming certain tenses. 
They are be, do, have, shall, will, can, may, must. 
Auxiliary verbs are often used also as principal 
verbs, and they are all defective verbs ; that is, they 
lack some of their forms. Certain verbs, as, get, 
got, got or gotten have double forms. Such verbs 
are called redundant, and may be found in the list 
of irregular verbs. 

26. Unipersonal Verbs are verbs which have 
but one person — the third person singular. They 
are also called impersonal, possibly because they 
cannot have a person as a subject. These verbs 
refer (1) to the weather ; as, It snows. It is warm, 
etc. ; or (2) to some phrase or proposition in the 
same sentence ; as, It is becoming to respect your 



42 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

elders. It is true that he hurt himself ; or (3) to 
some emotion ; as, It pains me. It pleases us. 

In the following exercise select subject and predi- 
cate. State whether verb is transitive or intransi- 
tive, regular or irregular, etc. Give its principal 
parts, and state voice and mood : 

EXERCISE II. 

Did the hunter kill a deer ? Run, and bring the gun. A 
man was injured by the train. May the boys go? The wind 
will blow to-night. The soldiers watched the camp. The 
deer leaped the chasm. We saw him leap. Men sometimes 
murmur about nothing. The water spread over the valley. 
John walked to London. Some laughed. Stay where you 
are. It will rain. The boy flew the kite. The gentlemen 
have withdrawn. We shall walk the horse. The sentinel 
watches alt night. I read the book. What is, is right. The 
vessel struck on a rock. Mary reads badly. Get your 
cane. We struck the mark. Lucy plays the piano. She 
plays quite well. The bird flew. I was seen yesterday. The 
barber will shave Henry. He was laughed to scorn. The 
wind blew. The tree was shaken by the wind. Do not forget. 
George must start. 




CONJUGATION OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 43 

CONJUGATION OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 

27. Below are given the forms of the auxiliary 
verbs that are used in the conjugation of other 
verbs. 

TO BE. 

Used to Form Passive. 

Principal Parts : 
Present — am Past — was Past Participle — been 

Indicative Mood. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am 1. We are 

2. Thou art 2. You are 

3. He is 3. They are 

Past Tense. 

1. I was 1. We were 

2. Thou wast 2. You were 

3. He was 3. They were 

Future Tense. 

1. I shall or will be 1. We shall or will be 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be 2. You shall or will be 

3. He shall or will be 3. They shall or will be 



44 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Present Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



1. 


I have been 


1. 


We have been 


2. 


Thou hast been 


2. 


You have been 


3. 


He has been 


3. 


They have been 



Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had been 1. We had been 

2. Thou hadst been 2. You had been 

3. He had been 3. They had been 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall or will have been 1. We shall or will have been 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have 2. You shall or will have 

been been 

3. He shall or will have 3. They shall or will have 

been been 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 

1. I may, can or must be 1. We may, can or must be 

2. Thou mayst, canst or 2. You may, can or must 

must be be 

3. He may, can or must be 3. They may, can or must be 

Past Tense. 

1. I might, could, would or 1. We might, could, would 

should be or should be 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. You might, could, would 

wouldst or shouldst be or should be 

3. He might, could, would 3. They might, could, would 

or should be or should be 



CONJUGATION OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 45 



Present Perfect Tense. 



Singular, 

1. I may, can or must have 

been 

2. Thou mayst, canst or 

must have been 

3. He may, can or must 

have been 



Plural. 



1. We may, can or must 

have been 

2. You may, can or must 

have been 

3. They may, can or must 

have been 



Past Perfect Tense. 



1. I might, could, would or 

should have been 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst or shouldst 
have been 

3. He might, could, would 

or should have been 



1. We might, could, would 

or should have been 

2. You might, could, would 

or should have been 

3. They might, could, would 

or should have been 



1. If I be 

2. If thou be 

3. If he be 



1. If I were 

2. If thou were 
3 If he were 



Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 

1. If we be 

2. If you be 

3. If they be 

Past Tense. 

1. If we were 

2. If you were 

3. If they were 

Imperative Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Be (you — thou — ye). 



46 



ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Infinitive Mood. 
Present — to be Perfect — to have been 

Participles. 

Present — being (gerund) Past — been 

Perfect — having been (gerund) 



TO DO. 
Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. 

I do 

Thou doest 
He does 

Plur. 

We do 
You do 
They do 

Past Tense. 

Sing. 

I did 

Thou didst 
He did 

Plur. 

We did 
You did 
They did 



TO HAVE. 
Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. 

I have 
Thou hast 
He has 

Plur. 

We have 
You have 
They have 

Past Tense. 

Sing. 

I had 

Thou hadst 
He had 

Plur. 

We had 
You had 
They had 



CONJUGATION OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 47 



CAN. 



MAY. 



Indicative Mood. 



Indicative Mood. 



Present Tense. 


Present Tense. 


Sing. 


Sing. 


I can 

Thou canst 
He can 


I may 

Thou mayst 
He may 


Plur. 


Plur. 


We can 
You can 
They can 


We may 
' You may 
They may 


Past Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Sing. 


Sing. 


I could 
Thou couldst 
He could 


I might 
Thou mightst 
He might 


Plur. 


Plur. 


We could 
You could 
They could 


We might 
You might 
They might 


SHALL. 


WILL. 


Indicative Mood. 


Indicative Mood 


Present Tense. 


Present Tense. 


Sing. 

I shall 
Thou shalt 
He shall 


Sing. 

I will 
Thou wilt 
He will 



48 



ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Plur. 

We shall 
You shall 
They shall 

Past Tense. 

Sing. 

I should 
Thou shouldst 
He should 

Plur. 

We should 
You should 
They should 



Plur. 

We will 
You will 
They will 

Past Tense. 

Sing. 

I would 
Thou wouldst 
He would 

Plur. 

We would 
You would 
They would 



MUST. 



Indicative Mood. 
Present Tense. 



Sing. 

I must 
Thou must 
He must 



Plur. 



We must 
You must 
They must 

Note. — (1) Let is used in the imperative mood to form 
what might be called a third person ; as, Let them come, etc. , 
i. <?., Come they. 

(2) Have used as a principal verb and followed by an 
infinitive ; as, He had to come, is a common idiom (peculiar 
construction) in English. In such forms have shows necessity. 
Have followed by a past participle ; as, He had his shoe 
mended, is also a common idiom. Here have is used in place 
of a periphrastic expression (roundabout way of saying a 
thing). It means to cause to be done. 



REGULAR VERB. 



49 



28. 



REGULAR VERB. 



TO LOVE. 

Active Voice. 

Principal Parts : 

Present — love Past — loved Past Participle — loved 

Indicative Mood. 



Sing, 


Plur. 


I love 


We love 


Thou lovest 


You love 


He loves or loveth 


They love 




Past Tense. 


I loved 


We loved 


Thou lovedst 


You loved 


He loved 


They loved 


- 


Future Tense. 


I shall or will love 


We shall or will love 


Thou shalt or wilt love 


You shall or will love 


He shall or will love 


They shall or will love 



I have loved 
Thou hast loved 
He has loved 



I had loved 
Thou hadst loved 
He had loved 



Present Perfect Tense. 

We have loved 
You have loved 
They have loved 

Past Perfect Tense. 

We had loved 
You had loved 
They had loved 



50 



ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Future Perfect Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

I shall or will have loved We shall or will have loved 

Thou shalt or wilt have loved You shall or will have loved 
He shall or will have loved They shall or will have loved 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 

I may, can or must love We may, can or must love 

Thou mayst, canst or must You may, can or must love 

love 

He may, can or must love They may, can or must love 

Past Tense. 
I might, could, would or We might, could, would or 



should love 
Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst or shouldst love 
He might, could, would 

or should love 



should love 
You might, could, would or 

should love 
They might, could, would or 

should love 



Present Perfect Tense. 
I may, can or must have We may, can or must have 



loved 
Thou mayst, canst or must 

have loved 
He may, can or must have 

loved 



loved 
You may, can or must have 

loved 
They may, can or must have 

loved 



Past Perfect Tense. 
I might, could, would or We might, could, would or 



should have loved 
Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst or shouldst 

have loved 
He might, could, would or 

should have loved 



should have loved 
You might, could, would or 
should have loved 

They might, could, would or 
should have loved 



REGULAR VERB. 



51 





Subjunctive Mood. 




Present Tense. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


If I love 


If we love 


If thou love 


If you love 


If he love 


If they love 




Past Tense. 


If I loved 


If we loved 


If thou lovec 


If you loved 


If he loved 


If they loved 



Imperative Mood. 
Present Tense. 
Love (you, thou, ye) Do (you, thou, ye) love 

Infinitive Mood. 
Present — to love Perfect — to have loved 

Participles. 
Present — loving (gerund) Perfect — having loved (gerund) 

TO BE LOVED. 

Passive Voice. 

Indicative Mood. 



Present Tense. 



I am loved 
Thou art loved 
He is loved 

I was loved 
Thou wast loved 
He was loved 



Past Tense. 



We are loved 
You are loved 
They are loved 

We were loved 
You were loved 
They were loved 



52 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Future Tense. 
Sing. Plur. 

I shall or will be loved We shall or will be loved 

Thou shalt or wilt be loved You shall or will be loved 

He shall or will be loved They shall or will be loved 

Present Perfect Tense. 

I have been loved We have been loved 

Thou hast been loved You have been loved 

He has been loved They have been loved 

Past Perfect Tense. 

I had been loved We had been loved 

Thou hadst been loved You had been loved 

He had been loved They had been loved 

Future Perfect Tense. 

I shall or will have been We shall or will have been 

loved loved 

Thou shalt or wilt have been You shall or will have been 

loved loved 

He shall or will have been They shall or will have been 

loved loved 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 

I may, can or must be loved We may, can or must be loved 

Thou mayst, canst or must You may, can or must be 

be loved loved 

He may, can or must be They may, can or must be 

loved loved 



REGULAR VERB. 



53 



Past Tense. 



Sing. 



Plur. 



or 



I might, could, would 

should be loved 
Thou mightst, c o u 1 d s t , 

wouldst or shouldst be 

loved 
He might, could, would or 

should be loved 



We might, could, would or 

should be loved 
You might, could, would or 

should be loved 

They might, could, would or 
should be loved 



Present Perfect Tense. 



I may, can or must have 

been loved 
Thou mayst, canst or must 

have been loved 
He may, can or must have 

been loved 



We may, can or must have 

been loved 
You may, can or must have 

been loved 
They may, can or must have 

been loved 



Past Perfect Tense. 



I might, could, would or 

should have been loved 
Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst or shouldst 

have been loved 
He might, could, would or 

should have been loved 



We might, could, would or 
should have been loved 

You might, could, would or 
should have been loved 

They might, could, would or 
should have been loved 



Subjunctive Mood. 
Present Tense. 



If I be loved 
If thou be loved 
If he be loved 



If we be loved 
If you be loved 
If they be loved 



54 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Past Tense, 
Sing. Plur. 

If I were loved If we were loved 

If thou were loved If you were loved 

If he were loved If they were loved 

Imperative Mood. 
Prese?it Tense — Be (you, thou, ye) loved 

Infinitive Mood. 
Present — to be loved Perfect — to have been loved 

Participles. 

Present — being loved (gerund) Past — loved 

Perfect — having been loved 

Note. — The only personal endings now left in the English 
verb are st or est for the second person singular, and th or eth 
and s for the third person singular ; j is the only one in com- 
mon use. 

The verb is so poor in endings that person and number can- 
not generally be told from the verb alone. In order to deter- 
mine them the subject noun or pronoun must be examined. 

Conjugation of Irregular Verbs. 

29. The method of conjugating irregular verbs is 
exactly the same as the above, and requires no 
notice beyond the caution to use the past participle 
correctly in the compound tenses. 



REGULAR VERB. 55 

Different Forms of Conjugation. 

30. The form of conjugation given above is the 
Common form. There are several other forms to 
express special meanings. 

(1) The Interrogative form is used in asking 
questions, and contains only the Indicative and 
Potential Moods. The only difference between the 
Interrogative form and the Common form is in the 
order of the words, and consists in placing the sub- 
ject after the first word in the verb ; as, Lovest thou 
me ? May we be excused ? 

The auxiliary do is employed in the present and 
past tenses of the Indicative Mood of the interroga- 
tive form ; as, Do you know ? Did he come ? 

(2) The Emphatic form is used for strong state- 
ment and contains only the present and past tenses 
of the Indicative Active, and the Imperative Mood. 
It employs the auxiliary do joined to the present 
infinitive (to omitted); as, I do love. They did love. 
Do come. 

(3) The Progressive form is used to denote the 
continuance of an action, and it may have all the 
parts of a full verb although many of them are not 
in use. In the Active Voice it employs the forms of 
to be joined to the present participle of any verb ; 
as, I am loving. You were coming. They will be 
dancing. The Progressive form in the Passive Voice 



56 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

is made by placing, the present participle of be (be- 
ing) just before the last word ; as, I am being loved. 
They were being loved. Practically the present and 
past of the Indicative are the only parts used in the 
Passive Voice. 

' (4) All forms of the verb may be used negatively, 
i. e. y the statement in them may be denied by the 
employment of the adverb not. This is placed im- 
mediately after the first part of the verb, except in 
the interrogative form, when it comes immediately 
after the subject ; as, I shall not love. We have not 
been loved. He is not being injured. Are you not 
going ? The use of not in a question shows that 
the answer yes is expected. 






SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 57 



SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 

31. A noun may have nine uses in a sentence. 
It may be (1) Subject ; (2) Possessive ; (3) Direct 
Object ; (4) Indirect Object ; (5) Apposition ; (6) 
Predicate Nominative ; (7) Object of a Preposition ; 
(8) Absolute or Independent ; (9) Adverbial. 

(1) Subject. 

The Subject of a sentence is that of which the 
declaration is made. In the sentence, Horses run, 
horses is that of which something is declared, and it 
is the subject of the sentence. 

Rule of Syntax. — The subject of a finite verb is 
in the nominative case. 

(2) Possessive. 

A noun which limits the meaning of another noun 
denoting a different thing is put in the possessive 
case. There is generally an idea of possession in the 
first noun ; as, John s knife, and hence the name of 
the case. But in such phrases as, John's father, the 
noun John has in it no notion of ownership, but it 
only limits the meaning of father so as to confine it 
to one particular father. The limited noun is often 
understood ; as, The farm is John's (farm). 

5 



58 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rule of Syntax. — A noun in the possessive 
limits the meaning of another noun denoting a dif- 
ferent thing. 

(3) Direct Object. 

The Direct Object of a sentence is that on which 
the subject acts. In the sentence, John killed the 
dog, dog is that on which John acts, and it is the 
direct object. 

Rule of Syntax. — The direct object of a transi- 
tive verb is in the objective case. 

Intransitive Verbs often take after them an 
object in the objective case, but this object must be 
of a meaning kin to that of the verb ; as, To run a 
race. He dreamed a dream. He died a tragic death. 
Such objects are called Cognate objects. 

(4) Indirect Object. 

The Indirect Object in a sentence is that with 
reference to which the subject acts. In the sen- 
tence, John gave the beggar money, beggar is that 
with reference to which the giving was done, and it 
is the indirect object. The indirect object can be 
readily recognized by recasting the sentence, and 
observing if the preposition to can be used before 
it ; as, John gave money to the beggar. 



■ SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 59 

Rule of Syntax. — The indirect object of a verb 

is in the objective case. 

The indirect object precedes the direct, 

(5) Apposition. 

Two nouns are said to be in apposition when they 
mean the same thing, and have no verb between 
them. In the sentence, William, the carpenter, is 
sick, William and carpenter mean the same person, 
and no verb is between them. They are then said 
to be in apposition. 

Rule of Syntax.- — Nouns in apposition agree in 
case. 

One of the two nouns must be exactly fixed upon 
as some essential part of the sentence — -subject or 
direct object or indirect object, etc. — and the other 
must be said to be in apposition to it. This is 
clearly necessary in order to decide their case. 

(6) Predicate Nominative. 

When the subject in the nominative is followed 
by another noun meaning the same thing as the 
subject, and an intransitive verb is the predicate, the 
latter noun is also in the nominative case, and is 
called predicate nominative. In the sentence, James 
is a soldier, James and soldier are the same person, 
and the intransitive verb is stands between them. 



60 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Soldier is therefore the predicate nominative. The 
verb commonly stands between the subject and the 
predicate nominative except in interrogative sen- 
tences. 

Rule of Syntax. — A noun in the predicate mean- 
ing the same thing as the subject, agrees with it in 
case. 

(7) Object of a Preposition. 

Rule of Syntax. — A noun in the objective case 
may be governed by a preposition. This use of the 
noun — often called phrase use — involves the subject 
of prepositions. Reference is made to section 23, 
where these words are treated. 

(8) Absolute and Independent. 

When a noun is joined to a participle, and the 
noun has no grammatical relation to any word in 
the sentence but that participle, the noun is con- 
sidered to be in the nominative case and is called 
Nominative Absolute. In the sentence, The tree 
having fallen blocked up the road, the noun tree is 
joined to the participle having fallen, but the noun 
tree is also subject of blocked. Such forms are not 
absolute. In the sentence, The tree having fallen, 
we cut off the limb, the noun tree is joined to the 
participle having fallen, and tree clearly has no rela- 
tion to any other word in the sentence. Tree in this 



SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 61 

latter sentence is Nominative Absolute. Absolute 
constructions are equivalent in meaning to depend- 
ent clauses. The sentence above is equivalent to, 
When the tree fell we cut off the limb. 

The words during and notwithstanding are com- 
monly called prepositions. They are really parti- 
ciples in an absolute construction. I shall come 
during the day, is, The day enduring (or lasting) I 
shall come, etc. 

When a noun is used merely to call the attention 
of the person named, as, John, are you sick ? it can 
have no grammatical relation to any other word in 
the sentence. Such nouns are considered to be in 
the nominative case, and are called Nominative 
Independent, These nouns must clearly be of the 
second person. 

Rule of Syntax. — Nouns used absolutely or 
independently are in the nominative case. 

(9) Adverbial. 

When a noun is used in a sentence in such a way 
as to modify the meaning of a verb or an adjective, 
as, He ran a mile ; He is ten years old, it is said to 
be used as an adverb. Such nouns are considered 
to be in the objective case, and are called Objective 
Adverbial. Frequently several nouns together are 
so used; as, They tied him hand and foot. They 
were routed, horse, foot and dragoon, etc. This 



62 



ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



use of the noun involves the subject of Adverbs, 
Reference is made to section 21, where those words 
are treated. 

Rule of Syntax.— A noun whose meaning allows 
may be used in the objective case as an adverb. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 63 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 

32. Every proposition must contain a verb as its 
predicate, and this verb must declare something 
about a subject. The connection between the verb 
and its subject is felt by understanding the sentence. 
It is shown in the form of the verb by giving it a 
singular form when the subject is singular number, 
&c. 

Rule of Syntax. — A verb agrees with its subject 
in number and person. 

The subject of the imperative mood is the per- 
sonal pronoun of the second person. It is com- 
monly omitted, and must be understood with the 
verb ; as, Boys, come (you) here. 

The introduction of these rules is a mingling of 
syntax in etymology, but this irregularity is more 
than balanced by the fact that the easiest way to 
learn the forms of words is to study them in sen- 
tences. And the examination of sentences necessa- 
rily introduces syntax. 

33. To parse a word is to state (1) its class, (2) 
its grammatical forms and (3) the law of its use in 
a sentence. 

34. To analyze a sentence is (1) to state its class 
(see page 6), (2) to point out its subject and predi- 
cate and (3) to explain all the words, phrases and 



64 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

clauses by which the subject or predicate is modified. 
Analysis of the sentence can at this place be carried 
through the first and second step only. As the 
various parts of speech are presented, the analysis 
should become more complete. Example : Parse 
the following sentence : Cats catch mice. 

Cats is a common noun, common gender, third 
person, plural number, nominative case because it is 
the subject of catch. Rule : The subject of a finite 
verb is in the nominative. 

Catch is an irregular transitive verb, from catch, 
caught, caught, active voice, indicative mood, present 
tense, third person, plural number to agree with its 
subject, cats. Rule : A verb agrees with its subject 
in number and person. 

Note. — Of course the form above for parsing the noun 
must be varied to suit the use of the noun in the sentence. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse each 
noun and verb : 

EXERCISE III. 

Thomas, the butler, is a strong man. James, the carpenter, 
built our house. The queen has not seen her daughter. Does 
the boy study his lessons ? A traveler gave the student some 
maps. Is John a carter? The child is learning French. 
Could the king not have given the soldier a pardon ? Henry's 
sister is a nice girl. Did the horse injure Robert's father's 
buggy? Will the children have measles ? Can the servant's 
boys not carry our friends the fruit ? The tiger is a ferocious 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 65 



beast. The gentleman should have given the servant's request 
more attention. Henry will give John, the book-seller, the 
note. If the cook call William, James will answer. Can the 
mason repair the farmer's fences? Was the house burned? 
If the king advance, the enemy will retreat. Will the boy 
not have an apple ? The boy walked a mile. William, your 
coat is torn. The bridge being gone, the boys could not cross 
the river. John's father's brother is John's uncle. Henry is 
six inches taller than James. The horse having been badly 
hurt, was turned out. James, you should not do that. The 
cane was four feet long. John was here last week. The rain 
having ceased, we went home. The boys ran a race. The 
child dreams. The child dreamed a dream. 



66 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



REVIEW OF VERBS. 

(To be Written.) 

1. Define a verb, and state difference between transitive and 

intransitive verbs. 

2. Write five sentences with transitive verbs as predicates. 

3. Write five sentences with intransitive verbs as predicates. 

4. Write five sentences containing verbs which may be used 

either as transitive or intransitive. 

5. What is the difference between regular and irregular verbs ? 

6. Write five sentences containing regular verbs. 
7- Write five sentences containing irregular verbs. 

8. What is mood? How many are there in English, and 

give names. 

9. Make sentences containing verbs in each mood — two sen- 

tences to each mood. 

10. What is voice ? and illustrate. 

11. Write five sentences in the active, and change them to 

the passive form. 

12. Write five sentences in the passive, and change them to 

the active form. 




THE PRONOUN. 67 



THE PRONOUN. 

35. A pronoun is a word that represents a noun. 
The term is gotten from pro-nomen, that which 
stands in place of a noun. In the sentence, John 
broke his leg, the word his is used for, or instead of, 
John's. It is, therefore, a pronoun. As they repre- 
sent nouns, pronouns must have, in general, the 
same properties and be subject to the same laws as 
nouns.. They may be subject, direct object, etc., in 
a sentence. 

Pronouns are of several sorts. 

36. Personal Pronouns are those which mark 
grammatical person, and so they have been used in 
the paradigm of the verbs. 

The personal pronoun of the first person is that 
used when the speaker refers to himself (I) or to 
himself and others with him (we). 

The personal pronoun of the second person is 
that used when the speaker refers to the person 
whom he addresses (thou, you, ye). 

The personal pronoun of the third person is that 
used when the speaker refers to some person or 
thing which he speaks of (he, she, it, they). 

The personal pronoun of the first person has no 
gender, but it has case and number, and is thus 
declined : 



68 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 





Sing. 




Plur. 


Nom. 


. . I 


Nom. 


. . We 


Poss. 


. . My or mine 


Poss. 


. . Our or ours 


Obj. 


. . Me 


Obj. 


. . Us 



The personal pronoun of the second person has 
10 gender, but it has person and number, and is 
tnus declined : 

Sing. Plur. 



Nom. . 


. Thou 


Nom. . 


. You or ye 


Poss. . 


. Thy or thine 


Poss. . 


. Your or yours 


Obj. . 


. Thee 


Obj. . 


. You 



The singular of this pronoun is confined to the 
language of poetry and prayer. By the influence 
of the Norman-French example, the plural is used 
even when one person is addressed. The context 
will often show whether you, yours is singular or 
plural in meaning. An unsuccessful effort was made 
two hundred years ago to introduce "you" with 
a singular verb ; as, " You was at home," and so to 
make a distinction by means of the verb. This 
form can be found in much of the writing of the 
time. The plural ye is not in present use. It was 
the only form of the nominative originally, and 
"you" was employed exclusively as objective. 

(3) The personal pronoun of the third person has 
a much clearer representative use than the other 
two. It really does appear in the sentence in the 



THE PRONOUN. 69 

exact place of the noun, and so it must have gender 
(to correspond to the gender of the noun) as well as 
number and case. It is thus declined : 







Singular. 




Plural. 




Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Neuter. 


All Genders. 


Nom . 


. . He 


She 


It 


They 


Poss . 


. . His 


Her, Hers 


Its 


Their or Theirs 


Obj . 


. . Him 


Her 


It 


Them 



The pronoun of the third person is perfectly pro- 
vided with forms for the different genders, and it is 
consequently referred to in order to discover the 
gender in which a noun is used. In the sentence, 
The hare ran into his hole, hare is shown to be mas- 
culine gender by reference to the pronoun. 

The form its came into use about three hundred 
years ago. It occurs but once in King James' Bible 
and never had the apostrophe. 

(4) Personal pronouns are often used reflexively ; 
that is, they refer back to the subject of the sentence ; 
as, I bought me a pair of shoes. 

(5) The present tendency of the language is to 
use the forms ending in self or selves in place of 
the simple forms, and these are usually called the 
Reflexive Pronouns. They are used only in the 
objective case, and are formed from the possessive 
of the first and second person, and the objective of 
the third as follows : 



70 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Objective Singular. Objective Plural. 

1st Pers. — Myself 1st Pers. — Ourselves 

2d Pers. — Thyself, Yourself 2d Pers. — Yourselves 

3d Pers. — Himself, Herself, Itself 3d Pers. — Themselves 

(6) The Intensive Pronoun has the same forms 
as the reflexive pronoun, but a different use. The 
intensive pronoun is always in apposition to the noun 
just before it, and is employed to make the noun 
more emphatic. As the intensive pronoun is an 
appositive it can never be an essential part of the 
sentence (section 15, 5). The reflexive pronoun 
is always either the direct or indirect object, and is 
an essential part of the sentence. 

The following examples will illustrate : The king 
himself will come (intensive). The king injures 
himself (reflexive) . I bought myself a cane (reflex- 
ive) . I saw the queen herself (intensive) . 

37. Interrogative Pronouns are those which 
are used in asking questions. The term is derived 
from interrogo, to ask. 

They are who, which, what, and are declined as 
follows : 

Singular and Plural Alike. 

Masculine and Feminine. Neuter. 

Which What 

(Whose) 

Which What 



Nom . 


. , Who 


Poss . 


. . Whose 


Obj. . 


. . Whom 



THE PRONOUN. 71 



Who is applied to persons ; as, Who is he ? 
Whose hat is that ? Whom did John see ? 

Which is applied to persons when it is used to 
ask about one of a class ; as, Which of the boys 
went away ? It is regularly used for things ; as, 
Which (thing) do you want ? 

What is applied to things indefinitely ; as, What 
is that ? What will you have ? The possessive of 
what (whose) is rarely used. 

38. Demonstrative Pronouns are those that 
point out some idea previously referred to ; as, We 
know that. This is so. They are this and that, and 
the plurals these and those. They may have any 
gender, to agree with the noun which they repre- 
sent, and may be nominative or objective case. 

Note. — The demonstrative pronouns this and that, when 
they refer to things, and are governed by prepositions, often 
assume the forms here and there, and take the prepositions 
after them ; as, hereafter, hereby, herein, for after this, by this, 
in this, and thereafter, thereby, therein, for after that, by that, 
in that, etc. 

39. The Anticipative Pronoun. — No very sat- 
isfactory classification can be given to the word there 
in such sentences as, There lived a man, etc. This 
use of there is commonly called anticipative, because 
there anticipates or suggests beforehand some noun 
which will follow it. In this use there may be singu- 



72 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

lar or plural, and any gender to agree with the noun 
to which it refers. Both the anticipative pronoun 
and the noun to which it refers, must be in the nomi- 
native case, and subject of the same verb — the pro- 
noun being the grammatical, or formal, subject, and 
the noun being the logical, or real, subject. 

The pronoun it is often used in much the same 
way as there. In such sentences as, It is true that 
the plan failed, that the plan failed is the real subject 
of is, and it suggests that the subject will be found 
later on. Somewhat akin to this anticipative use of 
it is its use to represent something well known, as 
in the sentence, I tell you what, he caught it. See 
Article 26. 

40. Relative Pronouns are those that both rep- 
resent a noun or pronoun, and also join two sen- 
tences together ; as, We saw a man who was blind. 
This is the boy whose book you found. Henry is 
the person whom I met. Relative pronouns always 
introduce a dependent clause, and join it to a princi- 
pal clause. From their use in joining sentences, rela- 
tive pronouns are sometimes called conjunctive pro- 
nouns. The noun or pronoun to which the relative 
refers is called the antecedent. It may sometimes 
be omitted ; as, (He) who steals my purse steals 
trash. The relative is sometimes omitted ; as, We 
got the things (which) we wanted. 

The relative pronouns are That, Who, Which, 
What, and are thus declined : 



THE PRONOUN. 73 



Singular Singular Singular Singular 
and Plural. a?id Plural, and Plural, and Plural. 

Nom . . . that who which what 

Poss . . . whose whose 

Obj. . . . that whom which what 

That has no possessive, and it cannot be used 
after a preposition. It is the most used of the rela- 
tives, as it refers with equal propriety to persons and 
things ; as, The man that we saw, etc. The house 
that we built, etc. Who is applied to persons only. 
Which is used when the antecedent is an animal or a 
thing. What has the use of a compound, and is 
equal to that which. 

Besides the above, but is a relative pronoun after 
a negative, in such sentences as, There is no one 
but loves him. There is no one who does not love 
him. 

Compound Relatives are formed by adding ever or 
soever to who, which and what. Their use is, in 
theory, the same as that of the relatives, but their 
meaning is more general. Practically they are used 
only as nominatives, and their antecedent is not 
expressed ; as, Whoever wishes may go, etc. 

Note. — The relative which, when it is governed by a prepo- 
sition, often assumes the form where and takes the preposition 
after it ; as, whereafter, whereby, wherein, for after which, by 
which, in which, etc. 



74 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 

41. A pronoun may have nine uses in a sentence, 
eight of which are, in general, identical with the uses 
of the noun, given in section 31, and governed by 
the same laws. The relative pronoun has an addi- 
tional use — that of connecting sentences. The pro- 
noun has no adverbial use. 

Rule of Syntax. — A Relative Pronoun agrees 
with its antecedent in gender, person and number, 
and introduces a dependent clause. 

42. The dependent clause introduced by the rela- 
tive is used to describe or limit the antecedent ; as, 
I see a boy who is running. "Who is running" 
describes "boy." The case of the relative is deter- 
mined by observing what use it has in the dependent 
clause — i. e., whether it is subject or direct object, etc. 

43. When the dependent clause is explanatory, it 
should be introduced by who or which. In the sen- 
tence, Kings, who are the refuge of the distressed, 
should be merciful, the dependent clause is ex- 
planatory and is properly introduced by who. The 
sentence is equivalent to, Kings, and they are the 
refuge of the distressed, should be merciful. 

44. When the dependent clause is restrictive (or 
descriptive) it is introduced by that, or, in many 
cases, who and which. In the sentence, This is the 



SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 75 

horse that I bought (or which), the dependent clause 
is restrictive, and merely limits the antecedent. It 
is properly introduced by that or which. 

Note. — The common forms, a brother of mine, that horse 
of yours, &c, are identical in formation with the phrases, a 
brother of Henry's, that horse of John's, &c. The latter are 
mentioned under the heading of nouns, page 118. 

Model for Parsing the Pronoun. — Do you know 
the man whose son brought me the note ? This is 
a complex, interrogative sentence. Principal clause 
is, Do you know the man ; Dependent clause is, 
Whose son brought me the note. Subject of the 
principal clause is you ; predicate is do know. Sub- 
ject of the dependent clause is son ; predicate is 
brought. 

You is a personal pronoun, second person, singu- 
lar or plural number, nominative case, subject of 
do know. Rule : The subject of a finite verb is in 
the nominative case. 

Whose is a relative pronoun, masculine gender, 
third person, singular number, to agree with its ante- 
cedent, man ; possessive case limiting son. Rule : 
A noun or pronoun in the possessive limits the 
meaning of another noun denoting a different thing. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse each 
noun, pronoun and verb : 



76 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE IV. 

Whom did you see ? We met the man whom you described. 
He is the person who gave us the books. John is the boy 
whose horse I borrowed. Henry was he whom you meant. 
The house is Doctor Smith's, who often visits us. Why did 
you not give him the money ? I have broken the gun which 
my father gave me. Did you not hear the speaker whose 
speeches are so praised ? Whoever wishes can come. We 
found the book we had lost. The colt hurt itself. The king 
himself will write him his commission. I could have got me 
an umbrella. Who comes there ? Whom the gods love die 
young. I engaged the person you mentioned. Whatever it 
may be, I can discover it. Did you give the general himself 
the letter ? That colt of mine was killed. A cousin of yours 
will come. 




REVIEW OF PRONOUNS. 77 



REVIEW OF PRONOUNS. 

(To be Written.) 

1. Define pronouns. How many sorts are there? and name 

them and give examples. 

2. Write five sentences containing personal pronouns as 

subject. 

3. Write five sentences containing personal pronouns as direct 

object. 

4. Write five sentences containing intensive pronouns. 

5. Write five sentences containing reflexive pronouns. 

6. What are interrogative pronouns ? and give example, 

7. What is the peculiar use of the relative pronoun ? 

8. Write five sentences containing relative pronouns as 

subject. 

9. Write five sentences containing relative pronouns as direct 

object. 
10. Write the declension of the personal pronouns. 




*^ 



78 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 

45. An Adjective is a word joined to a noun (or 
pronoun) to limit or qualify its meaning. The term 
is derived from adjectivus, that which is added. In 
the sentence, The boy saw two men who had some 
red apples, the words the, two, some and red are 
clearly added to certain nouns, and affect their 
meaning. The first three, the, two, some, limit the 
meaning of the nouns to which they belong, and the 
fourth, red, states a qaality of the noun to which it 
belongs. 

When an adjective is joined directly to a noun, as 
in the sentence above, it is said to be used attribu- 
tively. When it stands in the predicate, as, Snow is 
white, it is said to be used predicatively. Any num- 
ber of adjectives can be joined attributively to a 
noun ; as, The large, sweet, red apple. If several 
adjectives are used in the predicate they must be 
connected by conjunctions ; as, The child is healthy 
and strong. 

There are two general classes of Adjectives, 
Limiting Adjectives and Qualifying Adjectives. 

Limiting Adjectives. 

46. A Limiting Adjective is one that merely limits 
the meaning of a noun without stating any quality 
that belongs to the noun. They are — 



THE ADJECTIVE. 79 

47. Articles. — The limiting adjectives the and an 
or a are sometimes called Articles, and are occa- 
sionally regarded to form a distinct " part of speech." 
They are, however, simply limiting adjectives, and 
should be treated as such without any distinction 
between them and the other limiting adjectives. 

The is used to point out a particular thing or 
things ; as, the man (a special man) ; the horses 
(special horses). 

An or a is used to point out any individual ; as, a 
man (any man). When an is used before a word 
beginning with a consonant it drops the n and as- 
sumes the form a. An is used with singular nouns 
only. 

48. Pronominal Adjectives are those which have 
the use (1) of adjectives ; as, Some men were hurt, 
and (2) of pronouns ; as, Some laughed. 

Following is a list of the most important pro- 
nominal adjectives : 



all 


either 


much 


several 


another 


few 


neither 


some 


any 


former 


other 


such 


both 


latter 


own 


that 


enough 


many 


same 


this 



80 



ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



The two uses of the pronominal adjectives are 
illustrated in the sentences below : 



Used as adjectives, having 
nouns to agree with — 

All men are mortal. 
Another person must help 

you. 
Have you any money. 
Both men helped me. 
Either way is good. 
I desire neither book. 



Used as pronouns, having 
no nouns, but standing in 
place of nouns — 
All must die. 
I need another. 
I have not any. 
Both are pleasant. 
I do not like either. 
Neither is good enough. 



The pronominal adjectives are sometimes further 
divided mto four classes : 

(1) Demonstratives — those used to point out ob- 
jects ; as, This man. These men. That horse. 
Those horses. The demonstratives are former, lat- 
ter, that, these, this, those, same, such. 

(2) Indefinites — those used to denote number in- 
definitely ; as, All men. Some trees. The indefi- 
nites are all, any, another, few, many, none, other, 
some. 

(3) Nmnerals — those used to denote number 
exactly; as, Two boys. The first place. Numerals 
are divided into Cardinals, which tell how many ; 
as, one, two, three, etc. ; Ordinals, which tell of what 
rank ; as, first, second, third, etc. ; Distributives, 
which tell how many apiece ; as, each, either, neither, 
one apiece, two apiece, etc. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 81 

(4) Interrogative and Relative pronouns when 
used with a noun ; as, Which horse? Whatever 
man. 

49. Some of the pronominal adjectives change 
their form for number and case ; either has either' s 
as possessive, another has another's as possessive, 
and other has a plural — Norn, others ; Poss. others' ; 
Obj. others. 

The forms each other and one an other are 
always pronouns. In them the each and the one are 
always nominative case ; other and an other may be 
any case but nominative. The sentence, The girls 
love each other=The girls love one the other. The 
sentence, The girls borrow each other's books=The 
girls borrow, the one the other's books. The sen- 
tence, The girls give each other presents=The 
girls give presents, the one to the otket. And so for 
'one an other. 

50. The pronominal adjectives any, no (a form of 
none), and some, are used with the limiting adjective 
else, and the nouns body or thing between them ; as, 
any body else, so7ne thing else. The last two words 
in the combination form compound nouns, limited by 
the adjective any or no or some. They are always 
singular, and form the possessive by the regular 
law ; as, any body else's, etc. 



82 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

51. The numerals, pair, brace, dozen, score, hun- 
dred, thousand, etc., are nouns, and may be used as 
singulars with the indefinite article before them ; as, 
a pair, a dozen; or they may be used as plurals ; as, 
hundreds of men, pairs of horses. Such of them as 
mean two (brace, couple, leash, pair, etc.,) are fol- 
lowed by of and a plural noun ; as, a pair of gloves, 
a couple of horses. The others, in the singular, form 
compound collective nouns with the following nouns ; 
as, a dozen men, a hundred dollars. (The same form 
is found in the phrase, a good many.) In the plural 
they are followed by of and a plural noun ; as, hun- 
dreds of men. These last are also used as adjec- 
tives ; as, six dozen eggs, three hundred sheep. All 
the other numerals are pronominal adjectives, except 
in special cases ; as, by twos, by fours, etc. 

1. Write five sentences containing pronominal adjectives 
used as pronouns. 

2. Write five sentences containing demonstrative adjectives. 

3. Write five sentences containing demonstrative pronouns. 

4. Write two sentences illustrating the use of each other. 

5. Write five sentences illustrating the use of numeral ad- 
jectives. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 83 

Qualifying Adjectives. 

52. A Qualifying Adjective is one that names 
some quality of the noun to which it is joined ; as, 
A good man. 

53. Regular Comparison. — Most adjectives are 
qualifying, and they, together with a few limiting 
adjectives, have an inflection called Comparison to 
enable them to express degrees of quality or 
quantity. 

54. There are three Degrees of Comparison, the 
Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 

The Positive degree is the simplest form of the ad- 
jective. The Comparative degree is formed from the 
positive by the suffix er or the prefix more, and it 
implies that the quality is one degree higher than 
the positive. The Superlative degree is formed from 
the positive by the suffix est or the prefix most, and 
it implies that the quality is raised to its highest 
degree. 

In general, adjectives of one syllable form the 
comparative and superlative by the suffixes er and 
est ; as, positive — lo7tg, comparative — longer, super- 
lative — longest ; and adjectives of more than one 
syllable form the comparative and superlative by 
prefixing more and most to the positive ; as, posi- 
tive — beautiful, comparative — more beautiful, super- 
lative — most beautiful. 



84 



ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



55. Irregular Comparison. — Many adjectives 
form their comparison irregularly as below : 



Positive. 


Comparative, 


Superlative. 


bad' \ 






evil [ 


worse 


worst 


ill 3 






far 


farther 


farthest 


forth 


further 


furthest 


fore 


former 


foremost 


good 


better 


best 


hind 


hinder 


hindmost 


late 


later 


latest 


late 


latter 


last 


little 


less 


least 


many- 


more 


most 


much 


more 


most 


nigh 


nigher 


next (nighest) 


old 


older- elder 


oldest- eldest 


rathe 


rather 





56. Three of these above owe their extreme 
irregularity to the loss of some part which they had 
in Saxon, and the use of another adjective in place 
of it. Thus the Anglo-Saxon weors (bad) is the 
positive from which worse and worst are derived ; 
bet (good) is the positive that gave better and best ; 
las (weak) is the positive of less and least. 

Far, farther, farthest, refers to distance — I like the 
farthest house. 

(Forth), further, furthest, refers to something addi- 
tional — I make the further statement. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 85 

Later and latest refer to time — Defer the matter 
to a later date. 

Latter and last refer to position — He stood in the 
last place. 

Older and oldest refer to persons and things. 

Elder and eldest to persons. 

57. Incomparables. — Some adjectives cannot, in 
absolute strictness, admit of comparison, and these 
are sometimes classed as incomparables. They are 
adjectives in which the meaning of the positive is 
already as strong as it can be made. Such are 
dead, empty, eternal, infinite, left, perfect, perpetual, 
square, wooden, etc. 

Note. — Some of these adjectives; as, perfect, round, square, 
are often used to denote an approach to the quality which they 
imply. When we say, The earth is round, we do not mean 
exactly round but nearly so. In this use these adjectives can 
be compared and such forms as, This painting is more perfect 
than that one, would be correct. 

58. In such sentences as, John lost his knife, the 
word his may be regarded as an adjective and said 
to limit knife. Then a new class of limiting adjec- 
tives would be made, and the name given to them 
is Possessive Adjectives. 

The relation between his and knife is, however, 
quite as clear if his is said to be the personal pro- 
noun in the possessive case limiting knife. This 
explanation of his makes the existence of the pos^ 
sessive adjective needless. 



86 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



59. After these pronouns is often used the adjec- 
tive own; as, my own home, his own father. The 
adjective own has the sense of proper and qualifies 
the following noun which is limited by the possess- 
ives my, his, her, etc. 

60. Adjectives Used as Nouns. — When the noun 
to which the adjective belongs is omitted, the adjec- 
tive becomes a noun ; as, The good (men) die young. 
The wicked (men) flee. The nouns thus formed are 
always plural and are always preceded by the defi- 
nite article the. Good (happiness). Goods (prop- 
erty), and evil have become ordinary common 
nouns. 

61. A peculiar and very common English con- 
struction is the use of the noun as an adjective in 
such forms as, a winter home, the garden gate, etc. 
These forms may generally be regarded as com- 
pound nouns. 



& is, & 



SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 87 



SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

62. The comparative degree of the adjective is 
followed by the conjunction than and a clause ; as, 
John is taller than William (is). I like John better 
than (I like) William. 

The superlative degree of the adjective is fol- 
lowed by the preposition of and the objective case ; 
as, He is the strongest of the boys. 

That with which anything is compared is called 
the Complement. In the above sentences William 
and boys are complements. 

Rule of Syntax. — Adjectives limit nouns and 
pronouns. 

Rule of Syntax. — Adjectives in the predicate 
limit the subject. The predicate in this case is 
some such verb as be, become, get, grow, look, 
seem, etc. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse each 
noun, pronoun, adjective and verb : 

EXERCISE V. 

This coat fits you, that does not. The night was cold, but 
the day was warmer. John is a strong boy. The longer 
story pleases me. Robert is riding his own horse. Somebody 
else must go. The brave soldiers aided each other. Several 
persons were hurt when the house was wrecked. Some chil- 
dren are polite, some are rough. A hundred cattle were 



88 



ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



grazing. The poorer people were starved. Better boys 
cannot be found. The merry children gave one another 
little gifts. The sleepy baby was thrown out when the clumsy 
cradle fell. When the colonel was sick his major commanded 
the soldiers. The boys killed many birds when they were 
hunting; and they missed a good many. Twenty men were 
sent; they found the spring, and filled their casks. You must 
get somebody else's umbrella. James is a stronger boy than 
John. You should use your own books, and not borrow some- 
body else's. He is an uncle of mine. William had his own hat. 



REVIEW OF THE ADJECTIVE. 89 

REVIEW OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

(To be Written.) 

1. Define adjective, and state the two great classes and 

explain. 

2. What are the divisions of limiting adjectives ? 

3. What is a pronominal adjective, and why is it so called ? 

4. Name the classes of numerals. 

5. Write out five adjectives which have regular comparison. 
0. Write out five adjectives which have irregular comparison. 

7. Make five sentences containing qualifying adjective in 

positive degree in predicate. 

8. Make five sentences containing qualifying adjective in 

comparative degree in predicate. 

9. Make five sentences containing qualifying adjective in 

superlative degree in predicate. 

10. Make five sentences containing adjective in positive used 

attributively. 

11. Make five sentences containing adjective in comparative 

used attributively. 

12. Make five sentences containing adjective in superlative 

used attributively. 




90 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



THE ADVERB. 

63. An adverb is a word that limits a verb or an 
adjective or another adverb. The term comes from 
ad-verbum, that which is added to a verb. The fol- 
lowing sentences illustrate the use of the adverb : 

(1) Limiting a verb. The horse runs fast. The 
soldiers will not retreat. 

(2) Limiting an adjective. The child is very ill. 
The freshly painted house is pretty. 

(3) Limiting another adverb. The girl reads 
quite well. The note is rather badly written. 

If several adverbs limit one verb or one adjective 
or one adverb, the limiting adverbs must have con- 
junctions between them expressed or understood ; 
as, He speaks clearly and well. Really and truly 
beautiful. Really and truly well made. 

Note. — An additional treatment of nouns, verbs, pronouns 
and adjectives will be given farther on ; but adverbs, preposi- 
tions, exclamations and conju?ictio?is will be presented but 
once, and the treatment then will be as full as seems desirable. 
Further reference t© the last four parts of speech will be 
merely incidental. 

64. With regard to their meaning adverbs are 
divided into five classes, as follows : 

(a) Adverbs of Cause answer the question, why ? 
as, therefore, wherefore. 



THE ADVERB. 91 



(b) Adverbs of Degree answer the question, how 
much? as, enough, little, much. 

(c) Adverbs of Manner answer the question, how ? 
as, badly, truly, well 

(d) Adverbs of Place answer the question, where ? 
whither? whence? as, here, there, everywhere. 

(e) Adverbs of Time answer the question, when ? 
how often ? as, now, twice, frequently, seldom. 

Note. — The numeral adverb — once, twice, three times, etc., 
is included among adverbs of time. This arrangement has 
some convenience, and is as exact as any classification that 
can be made. 

The common expression, Three times two are six, must be 
explained as follows : Two is the subject, and, being an 
adjective used as a noun, it is limited by the numeral adverb 
three times, etc. The verb in these forms should be plural 
except, perhaps, when one is the subject ; as, Three times one 
is three. The use of English writers is, however, very dif- 
ferent as to the verb in these sentences, and many good 
authorities use the singular. 

65. The Responsives. — The common words yes and 
no are better treated here than elsewhere. When 
the question, " Did you go to town ? " is asked, the 
answer, "Yes," means "I did go to town." The 
answer, "No," means "I did not go to town." It 
is plain that the words yes and no stand for whole 
sentences, and so cannot be called parts of speech. 



92 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

66. With regard to their use adverbs are divided 
into three classes, as follows : 

(a) Simple Adverbs are those which only modify 
the words with which they are used ; as, He ran 
quickly. They will come soon. 

(b) Interrogative Adverbs are those used in ques- 
tions ; as, Why do you go ? Where is his home ? 

(c) Conjunctive Adverbs are those that not only 
modify a word but connect the clauses in which they 
stand with the principal propositions ; as, We know 
where you went. He heard when they called. From 
the fact that they connect propositions (like relative 
pronouns) these adverbs are sometimes called rela- 
tive adverbs. 

Below is a list of the most important conjunctive 
adverbs : 



as 


where and wherever 


whereon 


than 


whereat 


whether 


when 


whereby 


while 


whence 


wherefore 


whilst 


whenever 


wherein 


why 



67. Regular Comparison. — Adverbs admit of an 
inflection (Comparison) similar to that of adjectives. 
Many adverbs are related to adjectives in form and 
meaning. Adverbs of one syllable form their com- 
parative and superlative by the suffixes er and est. 
Those of more than one syllable form by joining 



THE ADVERB. 



93 



more and most to the positive ; as, Positive — soon, 
Comparative — sooner, Superlative — soonest; or, Posi- 
tive — rapidly, Comparative — more rapidly, Superla- 
tive — most rapidly. The use of comparison in 
adverbs is, like that in adjectives, to supply forms 
by means of which different degrees of meaning 
may be assumed by the adverbs. 

68. Irregular Comparison. — Like the corre- 
sponding adjectives many adverbs form their com- 
parison irregularly, as below : 



ositive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


badly ) 
ill 3 


worse 


worst 


far 


farther 


farthest 


forth 


further 


furthest 


late 


later (latter) 


last (latest) 


little 


less 


least 


much 


more 


most 


near (nigh) 


nearer 


next 


(rathe) 


rather 




well 


better 


best 



Note. — In such sentences as, He would rather send than 
go, etc. , the adverb rather has exactly its old force of sooner. 
The full form would be, He would send sooner than he would 
go. With this use of rather the verb would can be explained 
as governing the following infinitive. In the common form, 
He had rather send than go, the verb had cannot be explained 
at all. This latter form is, however, the preference of many 
good writers. There is some ground for supposing that would 
rather expresses a weak preference, and had rather a strong 
one. 



94 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

69. Adverbial Phrases. — Many adverbs contain 
several words ; as, every once in a while, every day, 
etc. They can be recognized by observing that they 
modify a verb, etc., and they may be parsed as one 
word since they are generally equal in meaning to 
some one adverb. These phrases should be assigned 
to their proper classes. Some are simple ; as, once 
on a time, etc. ; some are conjunctive ; as, so soon as, 
so long as, etc. 

70. Position of the Adverb. — Some adverbs and 
adverbial phrases demand care as to their position 
in the sentence. The most important is the adverb 
only. Below are given some illustrations of the 
changes in sense caused by inserting only in different 
positions in a sentence : 

He only will see his house=No one else will see it. 
He will only see his house=He will do nothing but see it. 
He will see only his house=He will see nothing else. 
He will see his only house=The only house he has. 

Especially to be avoided is the placing of an ad- 
verb between the infinitive of the verb and its sign 
to; as, to greatly admire, etc. 

No law governing this matter can be stated. The 
adverb should be so placed in the sentence as to 
render its use as clear as possible, and whenever 
the sense cannot be made entirely plain by locating 
the adverb, the sentence should be recast. 



THE ADVERB. 95 



71. Special Adverbs. — (1) Adverbs are used as 
nouns in such sentences as, Now is your time. I 
have not seen him since then, 

(2) Adverbs are used as adjectives in such rare 
phrases as, The then owner. Thine often infirmities. 
The above sentence. 

(3) The same word is often used both as an ad- 
verb and as a preposition ; as, He went by. He 
went by the gate. They rose up. They came up 
the hill. 

(4) In phrases like twice a day, etc., the whole 
may be regarded as a simple adverb, or a day may 
be considered an adverb (daily), limited by another 
adverb, twice, 

(5) The is an adverb in such forms as, the more 
the better, etc. The full form is by how much (it is) 
more, by that much (it is) better. 

(6) As may be a simple adverb, e. g,, As strong, 
as truly. 

Or it may be a conjunctive adverb, e. g., He went 
out as I came in. 

Or it may be a relative pronoun, e. g., He is not 
so good a man as I thought. 

Or it may be a conjunction, e, g., As he is here, 
I must go home. 



96 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. 

72. The comparative degree of the adverb is fol- 
lowed by the conjunction than and a clause ; as, 
John runs faster than William (runs). He lived here 
longer than (he lived) in London. 

73. The superlative degree of the adverb is fol- 
lowed by the preposition <?/and the objective case ; 
as, He runs fastest of all the boys. Other facts as 
to the use of the comparative and superlative of the 
adverb may be inferred from the remarks on the 
same forms of the adjective (page 123). 

Rule of Syntax. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjec- 
tives and other adverbs. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse each 
noun, pronoun, adjective, verb and adverb : 

' EXERCISE VI. 

He came slowly, but he reached home at last. I cannot 
tell why he does not like me. The taller house stands where 
the mill stood years ago. How did you find out what was the 
matter? The gentleman gladly gave the poor man some 
money when he saw how much he needed it. Do you like 
this city as much as Paris ? The general was not so brave a 
soldier as the king. The more you read that history the 
better you will like it. The robber ran quickly away as soon 
as he saw the dog. Regularly, twice a week, he visited his 
mother. The merchant will surely pay all his debts by next 



SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. 97 

year. Robert drives more carefully than James. The boys 
like the farm better than the city. We climbed three hours 
up a mountain two miles high. The father being dead, the 
son inherited his whole estate. Robert, have you caught the 
horse at last ? I am six years older than my only brother, 
John. 




Sllfe: 



98 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

REVIEW OF THE ADVERB. 

(To be Written.) 

1. Define adverb, and state classes. 

2. Make two sentences illustrating use of adverbs of each 

class. 

3. Write in full five adverbs which have regular comparison. 

4. Write in full five adverbs which have irregular comparison. 

5. Make five sentences illustrating adverbs modifying verbs. 

6. Make five sentences illustrating adverbs modifying adjec- 

tives. 

7. Make five sentences illustrating adverbs modifying other 

adverbs. 

8. Make four sentences illustrating the uses of as. 

9. Make five sentences containing adverbial phrases. 



THE PREPOSITION. 99 



THE PREPOSITION. 

74. A preposition is a word that shows the rela- 
tion between a noun or a pronoun, and a verb, an 
adjective or another noun. The term comes from 
prae, before, and ponere, to place. 

75. In the sentence, The tree is before the house, 
the word before shows the relation between tree and 
house. It is a preposition. The following sentences 
illustrate prepositions which join (1) noun to verb. 
Henry stood at the door ; (2) noun to adjective. 
Lucy is fond of flowers ; (3) noun to another noun. 
The man in the bed is sick. 

The noun or pronoun which depends on the 
preposition is said to be governed by it, and a prepo- 
sition may also govern (1) an infinitive, (2) a clause, 
when they are used as nouns ; as — 

(1) Noun, The man sat in the cart. 

(2) Pronoun, Give the books to him. 

(3) Infinitive (with to), They never saw him except to scold him. 

(4) Infinitive (in ing), His reason/br doing this is clear. 

(5) Clause, I will be guided by what you say. 

76. Following is a list of the most important 
prepositions : 



100 



ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



about 


around 


beyond 


off 


towards 


above 


at 


but 


on 


under 


across 


before 


by 


over 


underneath 


after 


behind 


down 


round 


until 


against 


below 


excepting 


since 


unto 


along 


beneath 


for 


through 


up 


amid 


beside 


from 


throughout 


upon 


amidst 


besides 


in 


till 


with 


among 


between 


into 


to 


within 


amongst 


betwixt 


of 


toward 


without 



77. There are two classes of prepositions — Simple 
and Compound. 

(1) Simple Prepositions. — The following are the 
simple prepositions : at, by, for, in, of, off, on, out, 
with, up. 

(2) Compound Prepositions are formed in several 
ways — 

(a) By prefixing a preposition, a=on, be=by, to a 
noun or an adjective ; as, a-cross, a-round, besides, 
be-low, etc. 

(b) By adding a comparative suffix to an adverb ; 
as, af-ter, ov-er, etc. 

(c) By combining several prepositions ; as, into, 
within, etc. 

(d) By prefixing a preposition to an adverb ; as, 
a-bove, a-bout, be-fore, etc. 

Prepositions usually stand before the words that 
they govern. 



THE PREPOSITION. 101 

78. Prepositional Forms. — A number of words 
now used as prepositions are not properly such, but 
the tendency is constantly stronger to regard them 
as prepositions, because their construction is so 
rendered more simple. 

Except and save are the imperatives of the verbs 
to except and to save, and the word by which they 
are followed is really the direct object of the verb. 

Barring, conceiving ', regarding, respecting, touch- 
ing, are present participles of their respective verbs, 
and the word governed by them is the direct object. 

During and notwithstanding are used as preposi- 
tions, but they are present participles (from endure 
or dure and to not withstand). The nouns are 
joined to them in a construction called absolute. 
Section 31, (8). 

79. Prepositional Phrases are collections of 
words joined by a preposition to the rest of the sen- 
tence, and having the force of an adjective or an ad- 
verb. Thus, in the sentence, The roses in the garden 
are beautiful, in the garde7i is a prepositional phrase 
used as an adjective to limit the noun roses. In the 
sentence, The bird sits on the fence, o?i the fence is a 
prepositional phrase used as an adverb to modify 
the verb sits. 

A prepositional phrase is sometimes used as a 
noun in such forms as, from across the ocean, from 
down the valley. Phrases so used are generally 
governed by from. 



102 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 

80. Prepositions govern the objective case. 

The preposition by and the objective case ex- 
presses the agent with the passive voice ; as, The 
house was built by the carpenter. 

81. Certain verbs, nouns and adjectives require 
special prepositions after them. Observation and 
practice will enable one to avoid errors in this 
respect. 

Below is a list of a few such words with the proper 
prepositions : 

Accord with. Convenient to (a person). 

Acquit of. Convenient for (a purpose). 

Adapted to (by design). Disappointed of (fail to get). 

Adapted for (by nature). Disappointed in (dissatisfied 
Agree with (a person). with). 

Agree to (or proposition). Y2.xX.fr0m (a person). 

Confer on (give to a person, Part with (a thing). 

discuss a plan). Reconcile to (a person). 

Confer with (a person). Reconcile with (a thing). 

Analyze the following sentences and parse each 
noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb and prepo- 
sition : 



SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 103 

EXERCISE VII. 

The sailor sat quietly in his boat while the storm raged 
around. Several hundred sheep were in the field when the 
wolf was shot. Why did you not consent to the arrangement 
more gracefully? Whom did the officers find in the house 
when they searched it ? After he had gone up the hill he slipped 
down. How can you answer such questions so ? When the 
king had come to the city he found the gates strongly guarded 
by soldiers. I drove to the left so soon as I saw the hole on 
the right of the road. The boy climbed into the cart, but he 
soon fell out again. I can come by to-morrow, if not earlier. 
The bear was standing still on a rock when suddenly he spied 
me and sprang down. The wind being still we could not ad- 
vance many miles up the stream. When the deer had run a 
few steps he fell dead. James, is that your knife? Yes, it is. 
The day being bright we went out several hours for a walk. 
The house which we built is forty feet long. 




104 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



THE EXCLAMATION. 

82. An exclamation is a word that expresses some 
sudden emotion ; as, ah ! hurrah ! oh ! etc. The 
term is derived from ex-clamare, to cry out. Excla- 
mations are often called Interjections. 

83. Exclamations are not strictly parts of speech, 
as they have no grammatical connection with other 
words in the same sentence. They, therefore, have 
no syntax. Really exclamations are whole sentences 
in themselves. "Hurrah!' means "I am glad." 
"Oh!' means "lam sorry," etc. In writing and 
printing these words are followed by the exclama- 
tion point ( ! ) . 

84. A number of the exclamations have no mean- 
ing, but are simply natural cries, almost the same in 
sound coming from men as from animals. Others 
are the imperatives of verbs ; as, hark ! hush ! etc., 
or shortened forms of phrases ; as, Alas, from a 
lesso=.0\\, miserable me ! Adieu, from a dzeu=(I 
entrust you) to God ! Good-bye=God be with you. 
O dear, O a 7 ieu=0 God ! Welcome !=You are 
well come, etc. 

Below are given sentences illustrating the use of 
the exclamations : 

Ah ! how sorry we all were. 

Aha ! I have you there. 

Alack a day ! whom have we here ? 



THE EXCLAMATION. 



105 



Alas ! I have lost them. 

Ha ! what was that ? 

Hark ! can you not hear the shouting ? 

Hush ! he is asleep. 

O John ! come here. 

Oh ! how I wish we had him back. 




106 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 

85. A Conjunction is a word that joins proposi- 
tions or phrases or words together ; as, I shall go 
and see the doctor. Come either to-morrow or next 
day. John and James. The term is derived from 
con-jungere, to join together. 

Conjunctions are of two kinds — 

(a) Co-ordinating Conjunctions are those which join 
two things of the same rank, i. e. y two principal 
propositions or two dependent propositions or two 
phrases or two words. 

The principal co-ordinate conjunctions are, and, 
both, but, either-or, neither-nor. 

(b) Subordinating Coujunctions are those which 
join two things of different ranks, and their only 
use is, therefore, to join a dependent proposition to 
a principal proposition ; as, I gave him money 
because he needed it, etc. 

The principal subordinating conjunctions are, as, 
after, because, before, ere, for, if, lest, since, than, 
though, till, unless, until, while, ivhether-or. 



SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 107 



SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 

Rule of Syntax. — The conjunction connects 
words or phrases or propositions. 

86. The conjunction has no control over the gram- 
matical forms of the words which it joins. The only 
requirement to be met is, in the case of co-ordinat- 
ing conjunctions, that the two words, etc., should 
have the same use in the sentence. If one of two 
nouns joined by a conjunction is subject the other 
must also be subject, etc. 

The English language has completely lost the use 
of the Subjunctive Mood except in rare cases and in 
the practice of very exact writers. Many of the 
offices performed in the classical languages by this 
mood has been assumed in English by the Potential, 
and many of them by periphrastic forms. 

87. Many conjunctions require certain other con- 
junctions to follow them to complete the sense. 
These pairs are called Correlative Conjunctions, 
e. g. y as-as, either-or, neither-nor, so-as, though-yet, 
whether-or. 

The adjective both requires the conjunction and ; 
the adjective such requires the conjunction as. The 
adverbs as and so require the conjunction as. 

In the use of the correlative conjunctions it is not 
clear that the first conjunction connects anything. 



108 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In the phrase, both John and James, the conjunction 
and alone would seem to perform the office of con- 
nective. 

In complex sentences the conjunction that is often 
omitted ; as, I told you (that) he was here, etc. 

Analyze the following sentences and parse each 
part of speech : 

EXERCISE VIII. 

I did not see the thief because it was so dark in the hall. 
John must either come himself or send a substitute. Did you 
know that the President was here ? No. As he is innocent he 
should be acquitted. I did not tell James whether the king 
would come to-morrow or not. The general could not save 
his army, though he was as prudent as any man could have 
been. Both John and his father staid till morning. We can- 
not go away till our guests leave. The house was so situated 
that the trees hid it completely from view. I did not know he 
was here. No one could tell whether the cavalry would return 
in time for the fight or not. Did you walk a mile, or two ? 
Mary, I cannot be ready for dinner, so do not wait for me. 
The king having ended his speech, the people applauded. The 
wheel being broken is no longer safe. I do not know how 
many inches taller Robert is than I. This house was built 
forty years ago. John minds his own business, and nobody 
else's. An uncle of Robert's passed through here to-day and 
left him a message. Our own house is good enough for us. 



VARIABLE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



109 



VARIABLE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



88. Many words vary in the uses made of them, 
and consequently become different parts of speech 
in different circumstances. The use of course de- 
termines what part of speech a word must be, and 
a little thought will commonly enable the student 
to decide the question accurately. A list of a few 
of the most common of these variables is, however, 
appended for the sake of illustration : 



A is an adjective ; as, 
A is a preposition ; as, 
Above is a preposition ; as, 
Above is an adjective ; as, 
Above is an adverb ; as, 
After is a preposition ; as, 
After is an adverb ; as, 

All is adjective ; as, 
All is a pronoun ; as, 
All is an adverb ; as, 
Any is an adjective ; as 
Any is an adverb ; as, 
Any is a pronoun ; as, 
As is an adverb ; as, 

As is a conjunction ; as, 
As is a relative pronotm ; as, 
Below is an adverb ; as 
Below is a noun ; as, 
Below is & preposition ; as 



He has a horse. 

He went ^-hunting. 

He lives above the post-office. 

Read the above sentence. 

He lives above. 

He called after me. 

He came soon after. He came 

after you left. 
All men are sinners. 
All is gone. 

He went all over the place. 
Has he any money ? 
Is he any better ? 
I have money. Has he any ? 
He is as brave as you. He came 

as I left. 
As he did not come, I will go. 
He is not such a man as I like. 
He went below. 
He came from below. 
He lives below the hill. 



110 



ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



But is an adverb ; as, 
But is a conjunction ; as, 
But is a preposition ; as, 
Else is an adjective ; as, 
Else is an adverb ; as, 
Else is a conjunction ; as, 
Enough is an adjective ; as, 
Enough is an adverb ; as, 
Enough is a pronoun ; as, 
Full is an adjective ; as, 
Full is an adverb ; as, 
Like is an adjective ; as, 
Like is an adverb ; as, 
Like is a noun ; as, 
Like is a verb ; as, 
Near is an adjective; as, 

Near is an adverb ; as, 
Near is a preposition ; as, 
Since is an adverb ; as, 

Since is a conjunction ; as, 

Since is a preposition ; as, 
That is an adjective ; as, 
That is a conjunction ; as, 
That is a pronoun ; as, 

What is an adjective ; as, 
What is an adverb ; as, 

What is an interjection ; as, 
What is an inter-pronoun ; as, 
What is a relative pronoun ; as, 



He can £#/ do this. 

He was sick but he recovered. 

All are dead but him. 

He saw someone else. 

Where else is he ? 

He will come, else he will write. 

He has enough money. 

He has slept enough. 

He got enough. 

He is full of learning. 

He has full many a friend. 

He is like his brother. 

He acts like a madman. 

He and his like are rascals. 

I like flowers. 

The rtear approach of danger 

frightened him. 
He was near. 
He was near me. 
He has not been here since he 

was sick. 
He cannot come since he has no 

money. 
He has been here since Monday. 
He shot that bird. 
He said that he was sick. 
He rode his horse, not that of his 

father. 
What a noise he makes. 
What with his talents and his 

wealth, he became a leader. 
What! did he do this? 
What did he say ? 
He did what he promised. 



VARIABLE PARTS OF SPEECH. Ill 

89. Any part of speech may be used as a verb in 
such sentences as, "But me no buts," "Clerk me 
no clerks," etc. 

The words most likely to be confused are the 
adverbs, conjunctions and prepositions. 

90. Any part of speech may be used as a noun in 
such sentences as, He said " Yes." It spells "long" 
etc. The commonly quoted sentence, "The boy 
said that that that that that lady used was incor- 
rect/' contains four different uses of that. 

Refer to any school dictionary, and, taking a few 
pages at a time, select all the words that may be 
used in several ways in a sentence. Make a sen- 
tence in which these variable forms are correctly 
introduced. 

Analyze and parse the following sentences. 
Change simple sentences to compound, and com- 
pound to simple. Change active verbs to passive, 
and passive to active. Note each part of speech 
that may be used in several ways : 

EXERCISE IX. 

1. John's uncle gave him a watch. John kept the watch 
two years. Now he has lost it. 

2. We came to a stream. The stream was Detween two 
hills. We crossed the stream on a log. 

3. The house was built by my father. The house was built 
during the war. It has been sold. A rich merchant bought it. 

4. The boys went hunting. They went into the mountains. 
They saw three deer. They shot one. 



112 



ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



5. We shall go to London. We shall start next week. 
We shall stay six months. 

6. The roads were very steep. The load was quite heavy. 
The horses could not pull the wagon. The driver took some 
of the load off. 

(1) The book which we are reading was written by a welU 
known scholar who lived at the close of the fifteenth century. 
(2) You must come to see me again and bring with you your 
daughter Mary, whom we all admire so much. (3) Dr. 
Smith, who lived here so long, moved to Paris, and, when he 
had been there a year, he came back to America again. 
(4) The mountains which we see yonder in the distance stand 
in Scotland, where I was born. 



SYNTAX. 113 



PART III 



SYNTAX. 

91. Syntax is the statement of the laws by which 
one word is related to others in the same construc- 
tion. The word is derived from the Greek sun-taxis, 
arrangement together. 

Regular Constructions follow the general laws of 
Syntax, and these have been already stated partially. 

Irregular Constructions (called idioms) do not fol- 
low those general laws, but must be otherwise 
accounted for. Commonly these idioms result from 
leaving out words necessary to the exact construc- 
tion. This omission is called Ellipsis. 

In this part of the Grammar will be treated those 
extensions of the general laws which seem most 
important, and those irregular constructions which 
best illustrate the idioms of the language. 



114 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



NOUNS. 

Nominative Case. 

92. I. Rule of Syntax. — The subject of a finite 
verb is in the nominative case. 

The subject may be — 

1. A noun; as, John came. 

2. A pronoun ; as, He came. 

3. An infinitive ; as, To hunt is tiresome. 

4. A phrase ; as, Reading good books is instructive. 

5. A clause ; as, That he is brave is clear to all. 

II. Rule of Syntax. — A noun in the predicate 
meaning the same thing as the subject agrees with 
it in case. 

Predicate Nominative. 

(1) The infinitive or participle of an intransitive 
or passive verb may take a noun or pronoun after 
it in the same case as a noun or pronoun preceding 
it ; as, He is regarded to be a brave man. I con- 
sider him to be a gentleman. In the first case man 
is in the nominative because he is the subject. In 
the second case gentleman is in the objective because 
him is the direct object. 

(2) When the subject consists of more than one, 
the predicate nominative is plural ; as, John arid 
James are my friends. 



NOUNS. 115 

Possessive Case. 

93. Rule of Syntax. — A noun in the possess- 
ive limits the meaning of another noun denoting a 
different thing. 

(1) When the limited noun may be easily under- 
stood it is often omitted ; as, We are going to our 
aunt's (home). 

(2) When several possessives are in apposition 
the last term takes the possessive ending ; as, He 
rode his brother Robert's horse. 

(3) When several possessives are connected by 
and, and separate ownership is asserted, each noun 
takes the possessive ending ; as, John's and Wil- 
liam's shoes. Here John and William own different 
shoes. 

(4) When several possessives are connected by 
and, and joint ownership is asserted, the last noun 
takes the possessive ending ; as, Walker and Smith's 
office. Here Walker and Smith own the same office. 

Objective Case. 

94. I. Rule of Syntax. — The direct object of a 
transitive verb is in the objective case. 

The direct object may be — 

1. A noun ; as, I saw John. 

2. A pronoun ; as, Robert knows us. 

3. An infinitive ; as, He likes to read, or reading. 

4. A phrase ; as, He wishes to have a holiday. 

5. A clause ; as, He knows that you can come. 



116 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(1) Every part of a transitive verb in the active 
voice may have a direct object. 

(2) Verbs meaning to allow, promise, refuse, etc., 
may have a direct object after the passive ; as, He 
was promised a reward. 

(3) Verbs meaning to ask, elect, choose, name, 
teach, etc., may have two direct objects, one of the 
person and the other of the name given or the office 
bestowed, etc. ; as, The people chose him king. 
He taught us grammar. 

II. Rule of Syntax. — The indirect object of a 
transitive verb is in the objective case. 

Note. — Generally the indirect object comes before the direct 
object ; as, Give the beggar (indirect object) money (direct 
object). But when both objects are represented by pronouns, 
the tendency is strong to place the direct object first ; as, Give 
it (direct) him (indirect). 

Any verb whose meaning permits may take 
an indirect object in addition to its direct object. 
When such verbs become passive they give two 
forms of the passive sentence. 

If the sentence, The hunter shot the deer, is 
changed to the passive form, it can have but one 
shape — The deer was shot by the hunter. The sub- 
ject hunter becomes the objective, governed by by ; 
the direct object deer becomes the subject ; the verb 
changes from active to passive, and no other form 
can be made, 



NOUNS. 117 

But if the sentence, The teacher gave the boys 
holiday, be put in the passive, it can assume the 
form, (1) The boys were given holiday by the 
teacher, and (2) Holiday was given the boys by 
the teacher. In the first case the indirect object ot 
the active becomes the subject, in the second case 
the direct object of the active becomes the subject. 
In each case that object which does not become the 
subject in the passive form keeps the same relation 
which it had in the active. 

The same peculiarity is shown by sentences which 
contain two direct objects as in (3) above. 

III. Rule of Syntax. — Prepositions govern a 
noun or pronoun in the objective case. 

(1) The object of a preposition may sometimes 
be omitted ; as, The man (whom) I sent for did not 
come. 

(2) The objective case and the preposition of is 
used instead of the possessive of common nouns 
which are the names of things ; as, The foot of the 
stair, instead of the stair's foot, etc. The possessive, 
however, is frequently found. 

(3) The objective case and the preposition of is 
used instead of the possessive of antecedent ; as, 
This is the house of the doctor who comes to our 
house, instead of, This is the doctor's house who 
comes to our house. 



118 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(4) The objective case and the preposition by is 
used for the agent with passive verbs ; as, He was 
hurt by the train. 

(5) The preposition <?/"and the possessive case are 
often found in such forms as, He is a brother of 
John's, etc. This is an elliptical (shortened) form 
for, He is a brother of (out of the number of) John's 
brothers. The preposition governs brothers under- 
stood. The similar form, in which no plural noun 
can be understood ; as, That nose of John's, that 
head of his, etc., does not admit the same explana- 
tion. It properlv came into use as an outgrowth of 
the other form. 

In the following sentences parse the nouns : 

EXERCISE X. 

1. A wit's a feather, and a chief's a rod, 

An honest man's the noblest work of God. 

2. Come, gentle spring ! ethereal mildness, come ! 

3. Confidence is a plant of slow growth. 

4. There mark what ills the scholar's life assail, 
Toil, envy, want, the patron, and the jail. 

5. A little rule, a little sway, 

A sunbeam in a winter's day, 
Is all the proud and mighty have 
Between the cradle and the grave. 






THE PRONOUN. 119 



THE PRONOUN. 

95. Rule of Syntax. — A pronoun agrees with 
its antecedent in gender, number and person. 

(1) All pronouns agree with the nouns for which 
they stand in all respects but in case. Every pro- 
noun takes its case from its use in the sentence in 
which it stands, and these uses are covered by the 
laws given for nouns. As already stated, the pro- 
noun cannot be used in the Nominative Independent, 
and has one use which the noun has not — viz., the 
connective use of the relative pronoun. 

(2) When the antecedents of a pronoun are of 
several persons, the pronoun is first person rather 
than second, and second rather than third ; as, You 
and John and I saw our friends. You and John saw 
your friends. 

(3) When the antecedents are of different genders, 
the pronoun is masculine rather than feminine, and 
feminine rather than neuter ; as, Neither man nor 
woman neglected his task. This use is objected to 
by some writers, but the form is clearly better than, 
Neither man nor woman neglected their tasks, as 
the sentence contains no plural as antecedent to 
their. Some writers use the form, Neither man nor 
woman neglected his or her task, but the repetition 
of the pronoun is clumsy and needless. 



120 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



(4) The preposition to with the objective of rela- 
tive pronouns takes the place of the indirect object ; 
as, He is the person to whom I gave the ticket, or 
He is the person whom I gave the ticket to. 

(5) The relative pronoun whose is commonly said 
to be the correct form when the antecedent is a 
person, its place being taken by of which when the 
antecedent is a thing; as, The man whose son 
came, etc. The mountain, the top of which we 
saw. This distinction, however, is not reliable, as 
numerous examples of excellent English will show — 
"fruit whose mortal taste," etc. 

(6) The relative pronoun which may have a 
clause as its antecedent ; as, He climbed the moun- 
tain, which was a difficult feat. The relative that 
cannot have this use. The nearest form in which 
that can be used would be, He climbed the moun- 
tain and that (demonstration) was a difficult feat. 

(7) The relative pronoun what has the same 
power as that which. The use of what is fourfold. 
It may be equivalent to — 

1. Two nominatives; as, This is what he is=the person 

(pred. nom.) that (pred. nom.) 

2. Nominative and Objective ; as, This is what he 

saw=the thing (pred. nom.) that (dir. obj.) 

3. Two objectives ; as, He got what he saw— the thing 

(dir. obj.) that (dir. obj.) 

4. Objective and Nominative ; as, I see what he is— 

the person (dir. obj.) that (pred. nom.) 



THE PRONOUN. 121 



(8) In such sentences as, John gave Robert his 
knife, it is not possible to say whether John or 
Robert is the antecedent of his, whether it is John's 
knife or Robert's. Such difficulties may generally 
be removed by rearranging a sentence, using such 
words as former and latter, etc. English, however, 
seems to need an additional pronoun of the third 
person to be used as the representative of some 
exact word in the sentence ; as, for instance, the 
subject. In the above sentence the new pronoun 
would refer to John, and there would be no doubt 
of the meaning. 

Such an additional pronoun has been frequently 
suggested, but there is no inclination on the part 
of people generally to adopt it. 

In the following sentences parse the pronouns : 

EXERCISE XL 

1. Good company in a journey makes the road seem shorter 
than it is. 

2. They shall sit every man under his vine and under his fig- 
tree. 

3. No one knows what the future has in store for him. 

4. Your son and I must go to-day. You and your brother 
can come later. 

5. I never thrust my nose into other men's porridge. It is 
no bread and butter of mine. Every man for himself, and 
God for us all. 

6. There is no man so good that, were he to submit all 
his actions to the law, he would not deserve hanging ten times 
in his life. 



122 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 

96. Rule of Syntax. — Adjectives modify nouns 
and pronouns. 

(1) Adjectives in the predicate both complete the 
meaning of the verb and modify the subject. In the 
sentence, Snow is white, is is a verb of incomplete 
predication. The adjective white completes the 
meaning of the verb and, at the same time, modifies 
snow. 

(2) Adjectives which have different forms for sin- 
gular and plural agree with their nouns in number ; 
as, this apple, these apples, that man, those men. 

(3) Indefinite adjectives of quantity are followed 
by singular nouns. Indefinite adjectives of number 
are followed by plural nouns ; as, much rain, many 
rains. 

(4) The adjectives each, every, either, neither must 
be used with singular nouns ; as, each day, every 
man, either road. 

97. Articles. — When several adjectives limit a 
noun, and but one person or thing is meant, the 
article is used before the first adjective ; as, The tall, 
blue mountains. But if several persons or things 
are meant, the article is repeated before each adjec- 
tive ; as, The tall and the blue mountains. 

In the same way when several nouns mean the 
same person or thing the adjective is used before 



THE ADJECTIVE. 123 

the first ; as, The farmer and merchant has come 
(one person). But if several things are meant, the 
article is repeated before each ; as, The farmer and 
the merchant have come (two persons). 

98. Comparative Degree. — The comparative de- 
gree is used when two things are compared. When 
the comparative degree is used the latter term of 
the comparison must exclude the former by the use 
of the adjective other ; as, England is richer than 
any other country. If other were omitted England 
in the above sentence would be said to be richer 
than itself. 

99. Superlative Degree. — The superlative de- 
gree is used when comparison is made between 
more than two things. 

When the superlative degree is used the latter 
term of the comparison should include the former ; 
as, England is the richest of all countries. If other 
were inserted England would be said to be the rich- 
est thing of a class to which it did not belong (other 
countries). 

100. As a multitude oi adverbs end in ly, the few 
adjectives in this ending, friendly, leisurely, etc., are 
sometimes misused as adverbs. This is especially 
the case with friendly. Adverbs formed from these 
adjectives do not exist, as they would have the 
awkward forms friendlily, etc. Their place is taken 
by a prepositional phrase, in afrie?idly manner, etc. 



124 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

101. In such sentences as, John looks pale, The 
rose smells sweet, etc., the adjective is properly used, 
because the reference of pale and sweet is to the 
nouns and not to the verbs. 

102. In such sentences as, John arrived safe, John 
arrived safely, the adjective or the adverb is used 
according to whether the reference is to John or to 
arrive. The meaning is about the same in both 
forms, but in a great majority of such sentences the 
reference is intended to be to the nouns, and these 
sentences should contain the adjective. 

In the following sentences parse the adjectives : 

EXERCISE XII. 

1. These apples are not ripe. 

2. The merchant lived many years and saved right much 
money. 

3. Each seems worse than the other. 

4. The Pacific is larger than any other ocean. 

5. The elephant is the largest of animals. 

6. Oh, a dainty plant is the ivy green, 

That creepeth o'er ruins old ; 
Of right choice food are his meals, I ween, 
In his cell so lone and cold. 

7. It's wiser being good than bad. 
It's safer being meek than fierce. 
It's fitter being sane than mad. 



THE VERB. 125 



THE VERB. 

I. Agreement. 

103. Rule of Syntax. — A verb agrees with its 
subject in number and person. 

(1) When the subject consists of several parts, 
joined by either-or, neither-nor, the verb is in the 
singular ; as, Neither John nor James has come. 

(2) When the subject consists of several parts, 
joined by and, the verb is in the plural ; as, John 
and James are here. 

(3) Collective nouns take a singular verb when 
the idea is one of unity. They take a plural verb 
when the idea is one of plurality ; as, The army has 
marched (as one man). The people were disap- 
pointed (as many). 

(4) When several nouns form one idea, the verb 
is singular ; as, The wheel and axle was broken. 

(5) When one of two subjects is excluded from 
the statement of the verb by not, the verb is in the 
singular and agrees with the subject which is not 
excluded ; as, John, not James, is here. 

(6) When several subjects are of different persons 
the verb takes the first person rather than the 
second and the second rather than the third ; as, 
You and James and I (we) went fishing and (we) 
caught some fish. You and James (you) went fish- 
ing and (you) caught some fish. 



126 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(7) When subjects of different persons are joined 
by either-or, neither-nor, the verb agrees with the 
nearest subject ; as, Either you or I am mistaken. 
Neither you nor he is mistaken. 

(8) When one of two subjects of different persons 
is excluded from the statement of the verb by not, 
the verb agrees with the other ; as, You, not I, are 
wrong. I, not you, am wrong. 

(9) When several words compose the name of one 
subject, the verb is singular; as, "The Curiosities 
of Literature" is a valuable book. 

(10) The verb to be often agrees with the predi- 
cate nominative instead of the subject ; as, The 
wages of sin is death. 

II. Government. 

Rule of Syntax. — Transitive verbs (in the active 
voice) govern the objective case. 

(1) Participles and infinitives have the same power 
to govern nouns (that is, to cause them to be in the 
objective case) as the finite verb. They have be- 
sides the use of some other part of speech, as 
follows : 

(a) The infinitive may be a neiiter noun in the 
nominative or objective case, and may be the subject 
or direct object in a sentence. The infinitive used 
as direct tfbject is commonly called Complementary 
Infinitive ; as, To hunt (hunting) is tiresome. I 
like to fish (fishing). 



THE VERB. 12* 



(b) The infinitive may be an adjective. It may 
either stand in the predicate with an intransitive or 
passive verb, or it may be used attributively and 
modify a noun directly ; as, He is to be excused 
(excusable). He lent me a book to read (a reading 
book). 

(c) The infinitive may be an adverb. It may 
modify (1) a verb ; as, I came to see you. (2) An 
adjective ; as, It was dreadful to hear. (3) An 
adverb ; as, To speak truly. 

(d) The infinitive in ing (the gerund) may be the 
object of a preposition ; as, He excels in writing. 
He made a fortune by saving, etc. 

Note. — With the participle there are two constructions in 
English which involve little difference either in grammar or in 
sense. We may say, (1) He heard the thief coming— here 
thief is direct object and is limited by coming used as an adjec- 
tive. Or we may say, (2) He heard the thief s coming— here 
coming is direct object and is limited by the possessive thief s. 
Some cases might involve a preference. The farmer confessed 
his horse's breaking the fence, is correct. The farmer con- 
fessed his horse breaking the fence, would have no meaning. 

When reference is intended to the noun, the noun is subject 
or object, as in sentence (I) where thief is direct object. 
When reference is intended to the participle, the participle is 
subject or object, as in sentence (2) where coining is direct 
object. The remarks are not limited to the present participle. 

(2) The infinitive mood of a verb (being a noun) 
is often the direct object of a transitive verb, and 



128 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(being a verb) may itself have a subject, direct 
object, etc. 

In the sentence, I saw him (to) come, him (in the 
objective case) is the subject of to come. 

Rule of Syntax. — The subject of the infinitive 
mood is in the objective case. 

(3) To is commonly omitted from infinitives after 
tne active voice of bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, 
need, observe, see, and the auxiliaries ; as, I bid him 
(to) go, etc. The verb need, in negative sentences, 
does not take the ending (s) of the third person 
singular ; as, He need not go. The use of to with 
the infinitive is borrowed from the Danish. 

Note. — In the construction, I needs must go, He needs 
must come, etc., needs is an adverb. It may be an objective 
plural kin to the objective adverbial, or it may be a pojssessive 
singular in which the apostrophe has never been inserted, and 
so really identical with the phrase of necessity, with which it is 
identical in meaning. (See remarks on possessive of common 
nouns, Article 9.) 

Parse the infinitives and participles in the follow- 
ing sentences •, 

EXERCISE XIII. 

(1) Seeing is believing. (2) By spending his money too 
fast, he became poor. (3) In doing this you will not lose any- 
thing. (4) To walk is pleasant. (5) We saw a boy carrying a 
basket. (6) He lent me a horse to ride. (7) I have some- 



THE VERB. 129 



thing to tell you. (8) We saw the boy catch the colt. (9) I 
wanted to look at him. (10) Bid him bring the wood. 
(11) Through his trying to save a friend, the sailor himself 
was drowned. (12) We like walking by the sea. (13) He is 
not to blame. (14) We met the sailor coming up the hill. 

(15) The king discovered the general's concealing the facts. 

(16) He needs must use somebody else's books. (17) We 
regretted the boy's arriving so late. 

III. Tense of Infinitive. — When the infinitive ex- 
presses action which is present or future at the time 
of the verb on which the infinitive depends, the 
present is the tense of the infinitive ; as, I wished to 
see you yesterday. The seeing was to take place 
while I was wishing, or a little in the future from 
that time. 

When the infinitive expresses action which is past 
at the time of the verb on which the infinitive 
depends, the perfect is the tense of the infinitive ; 
as, He seemed to have heard bad news. The hear- 
ing was past at the time of the seeming. 

104. Subjunctive Mood. — The subjunctive mood 
has nearly passed out of use in English. The lan- 
guage has lost much in beauty and exactness by 
this fact, but there is no sort of likelihood that 
the subjunctive will ever be restored to the place 
which it held even seventy years ago. 

The subjunctive should be used when a statement 
is so made as to imply doubt or consequence or wish 
in the mind of the speaker ; as (doubt), If it be clear 



130 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

to-morrow I may go. (Consequence), He must take 
heed lest he fall. (Wish) , I would he were here. 

In the following sentences parse the verbs with 
special attention to infinitives and participles : 

EXERCISE XIV. 

1. You will find angling to be like the virtue of humility. 

2. The accusing spirit, which flew up to heaven's chancery 
with the oath, blushed as he gave it in ; and the recording 
angel as he wrote it down dropped a tear upon the word and 
blotted it out forever. 

3. The sounding cataract haunted me like a passion. 

4. By governing himself, a man learns to rule others. 

5. The wretch concentred all in self, 
Living, shall forfeit fair renown, 
And, doubly dying, shall go down 

To the vile dust from whence he sprung, 
Unwept, unhonored and unsung. 

6. Night is the time to weep, 

To wet with unseen tears 
Those graves of memory where sleep 
The joys of other years. 

7. A noise like of a hidden brook 

In the leafy month of June, 
That to the sleeping woods all night 
Singeth a quiet tune. 



SYNTAX. 131 

SYNTAX. 

Subject, Predicate and their Modifiers. 

105. The subject of a sentence is a noun or any 
form that can be used as a noun, i. e., a noun, or a 
pronoun, or an adjective used as a noun, or the infini- 
tive of a verb, or a phrase, or a clause ; as, 

Noun : William is here. 

Pronoun : They will come. 

Adjective used as a Noun : The wicked will be punished. 

Infinitive : To hunt is pleasant. Running is tiresome. 

Phrase: Attending to his own business makes a man rich. 

Clause : That this is trtie is clear to all. 

106. The predicate must be a verb. No other 
word can be used as a verb. When the subject and 
the predicate of a sentence have been selected all 
the remaining words, phrases and clauses are modi- 
fiers either of the subject or of the predicate. The 
direct object, together with its adjectives, must be 
taken along with the predicate, as it is necessary to 
complete its meaning. 

Those which modify the Subject are adjectives or 
adjectival phrases or adjectival clauses. 

Those which modify the Predicate are adverbs or 
adverbial phrases or adverbial clauses. 

107. The subject taken alone is called the gram- 
matical subject, because it is, in grammar, the nomi- 



132 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

native case to the verb. The grammatical subject 
taken with all its adjectival modifiers is called the 
logical or complete subject, because it is the complete 
thing of which something is declared. 

108. The predicate taken alone is called \}ne gram- 
matical predicate , because, in grammar, it agrees with 
the grammatical subject. The grammatical predi- 
cate taken with all its adverbial modifiers is called 
the logical or complete predicate, because it is the 
complete thing which makes the declaration. 

109. Modifiers of the Subject. — The modifiers 
of the subject may be — 

1. An adjective : as, The rich man died. 

2. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case; as, John's 

father came. Her father came. 

3. A noun in apposition ; as, William, the tailor, made 

my coat. 

4. An adjective phrase ; as, The flowers in the garden are 

pretty. The bird sitting on the fence is a robin . 

5. An adjective clause introduced by a relative ; as, The 

boy whom you see is Thomas. 

As the noun can have any number of adjective 
modifiers, the subject may be modified by any num- 
ber of these adjectival forms. 

110. Modifiers of the Predicate. — The modi- 
fiers of the predicate may be — 



SYNTAX. 133 

1. An adverb ; as, He travels slowly. 

2. A direct object ; as, They saw me. 

3. An indirect object ; as, He gave William a dollar. 

4. An objective adverbial ; as, He walked a mile. 

5. An infinitive ; as, He tried to speak. 

6. An adverbial phrase ; as, He went into the garden. 

7. An adverbial clause; as, He stopped because I called him 

As the verb may have several adverbs to modify 
it, the predicate may be modified by any number of 
these adverbial forms. 

111. Dependent Propositions are either adjective 
or adverbial, according as they modify a noun or 
pronoun, or a verb in the principal propositions. 

According to their meaning dependent clauses 
are — 

(a) Causal, i. e , those which state a reason ; as, 
Since he has come, I can go. Causal clauses are in- 
troduced by the causal conjunctions, because, as, etc. 

(b) Concessive, i. e., those which state a conces- 
sion ; as, Though he is rich he is not happy. Con- 
cessive clauses are introduced by the concessive 
conjunctions, though, however, etc. 

(c) Conditional, i. e., those which state a condition; 
as, If he come I shall go. Conditional clauses are 
introduced by the conditional conjunctions, if, etc. 

(d) Comparative, i. e., those which state a compari- 
son ; as, It looks as if it were going to rain. Com- 
parative clauses are introduced by the comparative 
conjunction, as if, etc. 



134 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(e) Final, i. e. y those which state a purpose or 
result ; as, I made the gate so the horse could get 
through. I made the fence so high that the horse 
did not jump it. Final clauses are introduced by 
the final conjunctions, that, lest, etc. 

(f) Temporal, i. e. y those which state time ; as, I 
shall come when the sun rises. Temporal clauses 
are introduced by the temporal conjunctions, when, 
while, etc. 

(g) Relative, i. e. y those introduced by a relative 
pronoun or a relative adverb ; as, The man who was 
sick got well. I know where he is. 

Relative clauses introduced by a relative pronoun 
are used as adjectives and modify some noun in the 
principal proposition. 

The other dependent clauses are commonly 
adverbial, and modify the verb of the principal 
proposition. 

112. There is practically no use of mood peculiar 
to the dependent clause in English. The tendency 
to simplify the syntax has been strong enough to 
abolish the subjunctive almost wholly. But there is 
a peculiar use of tense illustrated in the conditional 
and comparative sentence, sometimes called the 
hypothetical law of tense, from hypothesis=a sup- 
position. 



SYNTAX. 135 

When the speaker says, If I had money, I could 
pay you, the reference is to present time, but the 
verb is past tense. When the speaker says, If I 
have money, I can pay you, the reference is to 
future time, but the verb is present tense. When 
the speaker says, If I had had money, I could have 
paid you, the reference is to past time, but the verb 
is past perfect tense. 

The law is that in sentences containing supposi- 
tions, the verb slips backward one step — for future 
time the verb is present, for present time the verb 
is past, for past time the verb is past perfect. 

113. When the speaker gives the exact words of 
another person, as in this sentence, I saw Mary and 
she said, "I am not well," the form is called direct 
narration {oratio recta), and is enclosed in quotation 
marks as above. 

When the speaker gives, not the exact words, but 
the substance of what another person says, as in 
this sentence, I saw Mary and she said that she was 
not well, the form is called indirect narration {oratio 
obliqud). Clauses in oratio obliqua always depend 
on the verb (of saying or thinking) in the principal 
sentence. Consequently these clauses are always 
dependent. 

In the following exercise analyze the sentences, 
classify the clauses, turn oratio recta into oratio 
obliqua and vice versa. 



136 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE XV. 

1. The boy said that he was going- to town to-day to get his 
books. 

2. No one could imagine where the deserters went. 

3. The king made the wall so thick that the enemy could 
not break through. 

4. We did not know our lessons because we did not study 
them long enough. 

5. The lion looked as if he would spring upon us. 

6. This man is a great benefactor to the poor, though he is 
so poor himself. 

7. Henry said, " I shall not lend John my knife again in a 
hurry." 

8. When the whistle sounded, all the workmen left the 
factory. 

9. We dug this ditch that the water might be drawn off. 

10. You look as if you did not believe us. 

11. We shall see him if he comes to-morrow. 

12. The lady declared that her little daughter was too ill to 
be at school. 

13. We send this now, lest we forget it to-night. 

14. The master asked John whether he was fond of skating 
or not. 

15. As you are here, we can go to church together. 

16. Though these boys are brothers, they do not love each 
other. 

17. I cannot go with you if my cousin, William, does not go. 

18. I feel as if I should faint. 

19. Those boys whom we saw at the corner were going 
hunting. 

20. Whenever he sees me he says that I am like my father. 

21. We made the fence that the horse might not get away. 

22. We made the fence so that the horse did not get 
away. 



SYNTAX. 137 

114. The following examples will illustrate the 
complete analysis of the sentence : 

1. Simple Sentence. 

Washington, the commander of the Americans, captured 
the British army under Cornwallis at Yorktown. 
This is a simple declarative sentence. 

Grammatical Subject — Washington, 
Adjectival modifiers — (a) the commander of the 

Americans. 
I. i Grammatical Predicate — captured. 

Adverbial modifiers — (b) the British army under 

Cornwallis. 
(b) at Yorktown. 

Modifiers of the Subject — 

(a) The commander of the Americans. 
Central word — commander, in apposition to 

Washington. 
Modifiers — (a') the, adjective limiting com- 
mander. 
fa') of the Americans, prepositional 
p h r a s e=adjective limiting 
commander. 

Modifiers of the Predicate — 

(b) The British army under Cornwallis. 
Central word — army — direct object of captured. 
Modifiers (b') the— adjective limiting army. 

j I J (b') British — adjective limiting army. 

(b') under Cornwallis, prepositional 
phrase=adj. limiting army. 

(c) At Yorktown. Prepositional phrase used as an 
adverb of place to limit captured. 

10 



II. 



138 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

This analysis is sufficient for the simple sentence 
because it reduces the elements of the sentence to 
phrases, and the composition of these can be seen 
at a glance. The compound sentence, in case it 
does not contain dependent clauses, can be divided 
into its simple sentences and each simple sentence 
analyzed by the above method. 

2. Complex Sentences. 

The king, who was frightened at the condition of the treasury, 
took those measures to fill it which were suited to his needs. 
This is a complex, declarative sentence. 

Grammatical Subject — King. 
Adjectival Modifiers — (a) the. 

(a) who was frightened at the 
I. \ condiiio?i of the treasury. 

Grammatical Predicate — took. 

Adverbial modifiers — (b) those measures to fill it which 
were suited to his needs. 

Modifiers of the Subject — 

(a) The— adjective limiting king. 
(a) Who was frightened at the condition of the treas- 
ury, dependent clause used as an adjective 
limiting king, 
(a) Who was frightened at the condition of the 
treasury. 
Subject — who. 

Adjectival modifiers — (a 7 ) (none). 
Predicate — was frightened. 
Adverbial modifiers — (b') at the condition of 
the treasury — prepositional phrase used as 
adverb modifying was frightened. 



II 



\\l.\ 



SYNTAX. 139 

Modifiers of the Predicate — 

(b) Those measures to fill it which were suited to his 
needs. 
Central word — measures — direct object of took. 
Adjective modifiers — (a') those— adjective lim- 
iting measures. 
(a') to Jill it — infinitive 
phrase used as an 
adjective modifying 
measures. 
(a') which were suited to 
his needs — relative 
clause used as an 
adjective limiting 
measures. 



(a') To fill it. 

Central word — to Jill. 

Adverbial element — (b") it — direct object of to 

jut. 

(a') Which were suited to his needs. 

Subject — which. 

Adjective modifiers — (a") (none). 

Predicate — were suited. 

Adverbial modifiers — (b") to his needs — prepo- 
sitional phrase used as an adverb modifying 
were suited. 



III. 1 



I 



The compound sentence may be divided into 
simple and complex sentences, and the complex 
sentences analyzed as above. 



140 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Analyze the following sentences : 

EXERCISE XVI. 

1. His sons, of whom the old man had three, were con- 
stantly plotting against their father's peace of mind. 

2. Where the torrent poured last winter there is now a 
rocky bed in which great boulders lie. 

3. Such men as William Tell will be venerated as long as 
there are nations to bless their benefactors. 

4. In his guarded tent 

The Turk lay dreaming of the hour 
When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, 
Should tremble at his power. 

5. When we came to the brook we found that we could cross 
by climbing from rock to rock. 

6. Although the location was unfavorable the settlers found 
that they prospered in their new home. 

7. While he was calling his men to come to his rescue the 
robber chief was killed by a shot from the attacking party. 

8. It may be true that he is a selfish man in general, but I 
know some instances of his generosity. 

9. Those who were injured in the battle we. had to carry 
many miles before we could leave them in safety. 

10. Whenever we go to the country we feel relief from our 
ordinary duties. 

11. Have you never seen the people who live in your old 
home? 

12. We could not tell whether the enemy would attack us 
or wait for us to attack them. 



SYNTAX. 141 

13. In order that he might rob a neighbor whom he had 
promised to defend, black men fought on the coast of Coro- 
mandel and red men scalped each other by the great lakes of 
North America. 

14. Spake full well in language quaint and olden, 

One who dwelleth by the castled Rhine, 
When he called the flowers, so blue and golden, 
Stars, that in earth's firmament do shine. 

15. If, as you say, 1 you never had any friends to aid you, 
how did you succeed so well ? 



142 



ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


abide 


abode 


abode 


arise 


arose 


arisen 


awake 


awoke- ed 


awaked 


be 


was 


been 


bear (to produce) 


bore 


born 


bear (to carry) 


bore 


borne 


beat 


beat 


beaten 


begin 


began 


begun 


behold 


beheld 


beheld 


bend 


bent-ed 


bent-ed 


bet 


bet-ed 


bet-ed 


bereave 


bereft 


bereft- ed 


beseech 


besought 


besought 


bid 


bid, bade 


bid, bidden, 


bind 


bound 


bound 


bite 


bit 


bit, bitten 


bleed 


bled 


bled 


blend 


blent-ed 


blent-ed 


bless 


blest- ed 


blest- ed 


blow 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke, brake 


broken 


breed 


bred 


bred 


bring 


brought 


brought 


build 


built-ed 


built-ed 


burn 


burnt-ed 


burnt-ed 


burst 


burst 


burst 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



143 



Present. 


Past. Past Participle. 


buy- 


bought 


bought 


cast 


cast 


cast 


catch 


caught 


caught 


chide 


chid 


chid, chidden 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


cleave (to adhere) 


clave, cleaved 


cleaved 


cleave (to split) 


clove, cleft, clave 


cleft, cloven 


cling 


clung 


clung 


clothe 


clothed, clad 


clothed, clad 


come 


came 


come 


cost 


cost 


cost 


creep 


crept 


crept 


crow 


crew, crowed 


crowed 


cut 


cut 


cut 


dare 


durst, dared 


dared 


deal 


dealt- ed 


dealt- ed 


dig 


dug, digged 


dug, digged 


do 


did 


done 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


dream 


dreamt- ed 


dreamt-ed 


dress 


drest-ed 


drest-ed 


drink 


drank, drunk 


drunk, drunken 


drive 


drove 


driven 


dwell 


dwelt, dwelled 


dwelt, dwelled 


eat 


ate, eat 


eaten, eat 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


feed 


fed 


fed 


feel 


felt 


felt 


fight 


fought 


fought 



144 



ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Prese?it. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


find 


found 


found 


flee 


fled 


fled 


fling 


flung 


flung 


fly 


flew 


flown 


forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


forget 


forgot 


forgot, forgotten 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


get 


got 


got, gotten 


gild 


gilded, gilt 


gilded, gilt 


gird 


girded, girt 


girded, girt 


give 


gave 


given 


go 


went 


gone 


grind 


ground 


ground 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hang 


hung 


hung 


have 


had 


had 


hear 


heard 


heard 


heave 


heaved, hove 


heaved 


hew 


hewed 


hewn-ed 


hide 


hid 


hid, hidden 


hit 


hit 


hit 


hold 


held 


held 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


keep 


kept 


kept 


kneel 


knelt- ed 


knelt-ed 


knit 


knit-ed 


knit-ed 


know 


knew 


known 


lade 


laded 


laded, laden 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



145 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


lay 


laid 


laid 


lead 


led 


led 


leap 


leapt- ed 


leapt- ed 


learn 


learnt- ed 


learnt-ed 


leave 


left 


left 


lend 


lent 


lent 


let 


let 


let 


lie 


lay 


Iain 


light 


lit, lighted 


lit, lighted 


lose 


lost 


lost 


make 


made 


made 


mean 


meant 


meant 


meet 


met 


met 


mow 


mowed 


mowed, mown 


pass 


passed, past 


passed, past 


pen 


penned, pent 


penned, pent 


prove 


proved 


proven-ed 


put 


put 


put 


quit 


quit-ed 


quit-ed 


rap 


rapped, rapt 


rapped, rapt 


read 


read 


read 


rend 


rent 


rent 


rid 


rid-ed 


rid 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


ring 


rang, rung 


rung 


rise 


rose 


risen 


rive 


rived 


rived, riven 


run 


ran 


run 


saw 


sawed 


sawed, sawn 



146 



ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


say- 


said 


said 


see 


saw 


seen 


seek 


sought 


sought 


sell 


sold 


sold 


send 


sent 


sent 


set 


set 


set 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


shave 


shaved 


shaved-en 


shear 


sheared, shore 


shorn, sheared 


shed 


shed 


shed 


shine 


shone, shined 


shone, shined 


shoe 


shod 


shod 


shoot 


shot 


shot 


show 


showed 


shown, showed 


shred 


shred 


shred 


shrink 


shrank, shrunk 


shrunk,shrunken 


shut 


shut 


shut 


sing 


sang, sung 


sung 


sink 


sank, sunk 


sunk 


sit 


sat 


sat 


slay- 


slew 


slain 


sleep 


slept 


slept 


slide 


slid 


slid, slidden 


sling 


slung 


slung 


slit 


slit-ed 


slit-ed 


smell 


smelled, smelt 


smelled, smelt 


smite 


smote 


smitten, smit 


sow 


sowed 


sown-ed 


speak 


spoke 


spoken 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



147 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


speed 


sped, speeded 


sped, speeded 


spell 


spelled, spelt 


spelt, spelled 


spend 


spent 


spent 


spill 


spilled, spilt 


spilt, spilled 


spin 


spun, span 


spun 


spit 


spit, spat 


spit 


split 


split, splitted 


split, splitted 


spoil 


spoilt- ed 


spoilt-ed 


spread 


spread 


spread 


spring 


sprang, sprung 


sprung 


stand 


stood 


stood 


stay- 


stayed, staid 


stayed, staid 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


stick 


stuck 


stuck 


sting 


stung 


stung 


stride 


strode 


stridden 


strike 


struck 


struck 


string 


strung 


strung 


strive 


strove 


striven 


swear 


swore, sware 


sworn 


sweep 


swept 


swept 


swell 


swelled 


swollen, swelled 


swim 


swam, swum 


swum 


swing 


swung 


swung 


take 


took 


taken 


teach 


taught 


taught 


tear 


tore 


torn 


tell 


told 


told 


think 


thought 


thought 



148 



ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Past 


Past Participle. 


thrive 


throve, thrived 


thriven, thrived 


throw- 


threw 


thrown 


thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


tread 


trod 


trodden, trod 


wake 


woke, waked 


waked, woke 


wear 


wore 


worn 


weave 


wove 


woven 


wed 


wedded, wed 


wedded, wed 


weep 


wept 


wept 


wet 


wet, wetted 


wet, wetted 


win 


won 


won 


wind 


wound, winded 


wound 


work 


worked, wrought 


worked, wrought 


wring 


wrung 


wrung 


write 


wrote 


written 



EXERCISES. 149 

The following selections are for further exercise 
in analysis and parsing : 

Achilles' wrath, to Greece the direful spring 

Of woes unnumbered, heavenly goddess sing ; 

That wrath which hurled to Pluto's gloomy reign 

The souls of mighty chiefs untimely slain : 

Whose limbs unburied on the naked shore, 

Devouring dogs and hungry vultures tore : 

Since great Achilles and Atrides strove, 

Such was the sovereign doom, and such the will of Jove. 

Declare, O muse ! in what ill-fated hour, 

Sprung the fierce strife, from what offended power ? 

Latonai's son a dire contagion spread, 

And heaped the camp with mountains of the dead ; 

The king of men his reverend priest defied, 

And, for the king's offence, the people died. 

— Opening of Homer' s Iliad — Pope's Translation. 

Arms and the man I sing, who, forced by fate, 
And haughty Juno's unrelenting hate, 
Expelled and exiled, left the Trojan shore : 
Long labors, both by land and sea, he bore ; 
And in the doubtful war, before he won 
The Latian realm, and built the destined town : 
His banished gods restored to rites divine, 
And settled sure succession in his line ; 
From whence the race of Alban fathers come, 
And the long glories of majestic Rome. 
O, muse ! the causes and the crimes relate, 



150 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



What goddess was provoked, and whence her hate : 
For what offence the queen of Heaven began 
To persecute so brave, so just a man ; 
Involved his anxious life in endless cares, 
Exposed to wants and hurried into wars ; 
Can heavenly minds such high resentment show, 
Or exercise their spite in human woe ? 
Opening of Vergil's sEneid — Dry den s Translation. 

Arms and the chief I sing, whose righteous hands, 
Redeemed the tomb of Christ from impious bands ; 
Who much in council, much in field sustained, 
Till just success his glorious labors gained ; 
In vain the powers of Hell opposed his course, 
And Asia's arms, and Libya's mingled force ; 
Heaven blessed his standards, and beneath his care 
Reduced his wandering partners of the war. 
O sacred muse ! who ne'er in Ida's shade, 
With fading laurels deck'st thy radiant head ; 
But sitt'st enthroned, with stars immortal crowned, 
Where blissful choirs their hallowed strains resound ; 
Do thou inflame me with celestial fire, 
Assist my labors and my song inspire. 

— Opening of Tasso' s Jerusalem Delivered — 

Hoole's Translation. 

Of man's first disobedience and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought deach into the world and all our woe, 
With loss of Eden, till one greater man 



EXERCISES. 151 



Restore us and regain the blissful seat, 

Sing heavenly muse, that on the secret top 

Of Horeb or Sinai didst inspire 

That shepherd, who first taught the chosen seed, 

In the beginning how the Heavens and Earth 

Rose out of Chaos; or, if Sion hill 

Delight thee more, and Siloa's brook that flowed, 

Fast by the oracle of God ; I thence 

Invoke thy aid to my adventurous song, 

That with no middle flight intends to soar 

Above the Ionian mount while it pursues 

Things unattempted yet in prose or rhyme. 

— Opening of Miltori s Paradise Lost. 

Harp of the North ! that mouldering long hast hung 

On the witch-elm that shades Saint Fillan's spring, 
And down the mournful breeze thy numbers flung, 

Till envious ivy did around thee cling, 
Muffling with verdant ringlet every string — 

O minstrel Harp, still must thine accents sleep ? 
Mid rustling leaves and fountains murmuring, 

Still must thy sweeter sounds their silence keep, 
Nor bid a warrior smile nor teach a maid to weep ? 

Not thus in ancient days of Caledon, 

Was thy voice mute amid the festal crowd, 

When lay of hopeless love, or glory won, 
Aroused the fearful or subdued the proud. 

At each according pause, was heard aloud 
Thine ardent symphony sublime and high ; 



152 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Fair dames and crested chiefs attention bowed : 

For still the burden of thy minstrelsy- 
Was knighthood's dauntless deed and beauty's matchless eye. 

O wake once more ! how rude soe'er the hand 

That ventures o'er thy magic maze to stray ; 
O wake once more ! though scarce my skill command 

Some feeble echoing of thine earlier lay ; 
Though harsh and faint and soon to die away, 

And all unworthy of thy nobler strain, 
Yet if one heart throb higher at its sway 

The wizard note has not been touched in vain, 
Then silent be no more ! Enchantress, wake again ! 

— Opening of Scott's Lady of the Lake. 

I purpose to write the history of England from the accession 
of King James the Second down to a time which is within the 
memory of men still living. I shall recount the errors which, 
in a few months, alienated a loyal gentry and priesthood from 
the House of Stuart. I shall trace the course of that revolu- 
tion which terminated the long struggle between our sover- 
eigns and their parliaments, and bound up together the rights 
of the people and the title of the reigning dynasty. I shall 
relate how the new settlement was, during many troubled 
years, successfully defended against foreign and domestic 
enemies ; how under that settlement the authority of law and 
the security of property were found to be compatible with a 
liberty of discussion and of individual action never before 
known; how, from the auspicious union of order and freedom, 
sprang a prosperity of which the annals of human affairs had 



EXERCISES. 153 



furnished no examples; how our country, from a state of 
ignominious vassalage, rapidly rose to the place of umpire 
among European powers ; how her opulence and her martial 
glory grew together ; how, by wise and resolute good faith, 
was gradually established a public credit fruitful of marvels 
which to the statesmen of any former age would have seemed 
incredible; how a gigantic commerce gave birth to a maritime 
power, compared with which every other maritime power, 
ancient or modern, sinks into insignificance; how Scotland, 
after ages of enmity, was at length united to England, not 
merely by legal bonds, but by indissoluble ties of interest and 
affection; how, in America, the British colonies rapidly became 
far mightier and wealthier than the realms which Cortes and 
Pizarro had added to the dominions of Charles the Fifth; how, 
in Asia, British adventurers founded an empire not less splendid 
and more durable than that of Alexander. 

— Opening of Macaulay* s History of England. 

I have friends whose society is extremely agreeable to me ; 
they are of all ages and of every country. They have dis- 
tinguished themselves both in the cabinet and in the field, and 
obtained high honors for their knowledge of the sciences. It 
is easy to gain access to them, for they are always at my service, 
and I admit them to my company and dismiss them from it 
whenever I please. They are never troublesome, but imme- 
diately answer every question I ask them. Some relate to 
me the events of past ages, while others reveal to me the 
secrets of nature. Some teach me how to live, and others how 
to die. Some by their vivacity drive away my cares and 
exhilarate my spirits while others give fortitude to my mind, 



154 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and teach me the important lesson how to restrain my desires 
and depend wholly on myself. They open to me, in short, the 
various avenues of all the arts and sciences, and upon their 
information I safely rely in all emergencies. In return for all 
these services they only ask me to accommodate them with a 
convenient chamber in some corner of my humble habitation, 
where they may repose in peace — for these friends are more 
delighted by the tranquillity of retirement than with the 
tumults of society. — Petrarch, 

Learning is like mercury — one of the most powerful and 
excellent things in the world in skillful hands ; in unskillful, 
the most mischievous. — Pope. 

He that knoweth not what he ought to know is a brute 
among men ; he that knoweth no more than he hath need of, 
is a man among brute beasts ; and he that knoweth all that he 
may know, is as a god amongst men. — Pythagoras. 

I consider a human soul without education like marble in the 
quarry, which shows none of its inherent beauties until the 
skill of the polisher fetches out the colors, makes the surface 
shine and discovers every ornamental spot, cloud and vein that 
runs through the body of it. Education, after the same 
manner, when it works upon a noble mind, draws out to view 
every latent virtue and perfection, which without such help are 
never able to make their appearance. — Addison. 

A joyless and dreary season will old age prove if we arrive 
at it with an unimproved or corrupted mind. For this period, 
as for everything, certain preparation is necessary; and that 



EXERCISES. 155 



preparation consists in the acquisition of knowledge, friends 
and virtue. Then is the time when a man would specially wish 
to find himself surrounded by those who love and respect him — 
who will bear with his infirmities, relieve him of his labors and 
cheer him with their society. Let him, therefore, now in the 
summer of his days, while yet active and flourishing, by acts 
of seasonable kindness and benevolence insure that love, and 
by upright and honorable conduct lay the foundation for that 
respect which in old age he would wish to enjoy. In the last 
place let him consider a good conscience, peace with God and 
the hope of heaven, as the most effectual consolations he can 
possess when the evil days shall come. — Blair. 

Hohenlinden. 

On Linden when the sun was low, 
All bloodless lay the untrodden snow, 
And dark as winter was the flow 
Of Iser, rolling rapidly. 

But Linden saw another sight, 
When the drum beat at dead of night 
Commanding fires of death to light 
The darkness of her scenery. 

By torch and trumpet fast arrayed 
Each horseman drew his battle blade, 
And furious every charger neighed 
To join the dreadful revelry. 



156 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Then shook the hills with thunder riven : 
Then rushed the steed to battle driven ; 
And louder than the bolts of Heaven 
Far flashed the red artillery. 

But redder yet that light shall glow 
On' Linden's hills of stained snow : 
And bloodier yet the torrent flow 
Of Iser, rolling rapidly. 

Tis morn : but scarce yon level sun 
Can pierce the war clouds, rolling dun, 
Where furious Frank and fiery Hun 
Shout in their sulphurous canopy. 

The combat thickens. On, ye brave 
Who rush to glory, or the grave ; 
Wave, Munich, all thy banners wave, 
And charge with all thy chivalry. 

Few, few shall part where many meet ! 

The snow shall be their winding sheet, 

And every turf beneath their feet 

Shall be a soldier's sepulchre. 

— Campbell. 

The Light of Other Days. 

Oft in the stilly night 

Ere slumber's chain has bound me, 
Fond memory brings the light 

Of other days around me, 



EXERCISES. 157 



The smiles, the tears 

Of boyhood's years, 
The words of love then spoken : 

The eyes that shone 
Now dimmed and gone, 

The cheerful hearts now broken : 
Thus in the stilly night 

Ere slumber's chain has bound me, 
Sad memory brings the light 

Of other days around me. 

When I remember all 

The friends so linked together 
I've seen around me fall 

Like leaves in wintry weather, ■ 
I feel like one 

Who treads alone 
Some banquet hall deserted, 

Whose lights are fled, 
Whose garlands dead, 

And all but he departed ! 
Thus in the stilly night 

Ere slumber's chain has bound me, 
Sad memory brings the light 

Of other days around me. 



— Moore. 



PUNCTUATION. 

1. The subject of Punctuation (punctum, a point, 
a pause) is so closely connected with Grammar that 
it may with propriety be introduced at this place. 

2. The laws of Punctuation are designed to show 
the uses of the Punctuation Marks. 

3. The Punctuation Marks are signs placed in 
sentences, and they are contrived mainly to mark 
the points where pauses should be made in reading 
or where certain rise and fall (cadence, inflection) of 
the voice should occur. The general intention of 
these points is to give such directions for reading 
that sentences when read shall produce the same 
impression as sentences properly spoken. 

4. The present art of punctuation is a modern 
one, and, with few exceptions, is the same in all 
languages. Aldo Manuzio, a Venetian printer, first 
called general attention to the value of a system of 
punctuation about 1500, and the Dutch and English 
printers have contributed largely to perfect the art. 

5. Quite a number of the names now given to 
punctuation marks belonged originally to the parts 
of the sentence cut off by these marks. The names 
were gradually and easily transferred to the marks 
themselves. 



160 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 

>. Capital Letters {caput, a head, a beginning) 
^e some uses kin to those of punctuation marks, 
capitals were employed in ancient languages for 
centuries before the small letters came into exist- 
ence. They retain, in English, the special uses 
below. 

1. The Title of books, newspapers, essays, etc., 
should be in capitals ; as, PARADISE LOST, THE 
LONDON TIMES, ESSAY ON ETERNITY, etc. 

2. Headings of pages, chapters, sections, etc., 
should be in capitals ; as, PUNCTUATION, THE 
PRONOUN, CHAPTER III., etc. 

3. The first word of every piece of writing should 
begin with a capital. Quite a common use is to set 
the whole of the first word in capitals. 

4. The first word in every sentence should begin 
with a capital. 

5. The first word in every verse (line) of poetry 
should begin with a capital. In some writing having 
the form of poetry, where the author intends to be 
humorous, the humor is supposed to be heightened 
by closing a verse with part of a word and using 
the rest to begin the next verse ; as, 



PUNCTUATION. 161 



He had a can- 
dle in his hand, 
Which cast a fee- 
ble gleam. 

The law which requires each verse to begin with 
a capital letter is not commonly observed in compo- 
sition of this sort. 

6. All the names for God ; as, Father, Creator, 
Supreme Being, etc., should begin with a capital. 
The pronouns referring to God are not generally 
spelled with capitals when the noun is in the 
sentence. 

7. The words Heaven and Hell and Devil are 
often spelled with capitals. 

8. Names of the Bible and of its parts should 
begin with capitals : as, the New Testament, the 
Book of Psalms, etc. 

9. Names of religious bodies and political parties 
and organizations should begin with capitals ; as, 
the Catholics, the Christian Association, the Demo- 
cratic Party. 

10. All proper nouns should begin with a capital 
South, North, East, West, when used as nouns 
should begin with capitals ; as, He lived in the 
West. 

11. Names of days of the week, holidays and 
months should begin with capitals. Many writers 
include names of the seasons also. 



162 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

12. Proper adjectives should begin with capitals ; 
as, American, British, etc. 

13. Names of offices and titles should begin with 
capitals ; as, President of the United States, Your 
Majesty, etc. 

14.' The first word after a formal phrase should 
begin with a capital ; as, Be it resolved, That we 
shall, etc. 

15. The first word of a quotation should begin 
with a capital. 

16. The pronoun I and the exclamation O ! are 
capitals. 

17. Any word to which special attention is to be 
directed may begin with a capital. Such words are 
usually spelled with a capital when they name things 
of great general importance, or when they name 
parts of a subject which are introduced for the first 
time ; as, During the progress of the Thirty Years 
War, etc. The Pronoun is a word, etc. 

18. All nouns naming things referred to as if they 
were persons (Personification) should begin with 
capitals ; as, Brightest in dungeons, Liberty, art 
thou ! 

In the following exercise state the reason for the 
use of capitals : 



PUNCTUATION. 163 



1. Mr. Wilson bought a Shakespeare and a Milton in New 

York. 

2. Our Father which art in Heaven. 

3. I met the President of France at Calais. 

4. William moved to the South last Christmas. 

5. The soldier cried, ' ' We are happy to buy victory with life. " 

6. The place of the Noun is often taken by the Pronoun. 

7. O ! how I wish Thanksgiving would come. 

8. Have you never read the Tempest ? 

9. LADY OF THE LAKE. 

10. All nature is but art unknown to thee ; 

All chance, direction which thou canst not see, 
All discord, harmony not understood, 
All partial evil, universal good. 

11. On Friday, August, 10th., we started to the East. 

12. Silence and Darkness! solemn sisters! twins 
From ancient night. 

13. He voted with the Republican Party. 

14. The Comedy of Errors was played at the Globe in London. 

15. Gather ye rosebuds while ye may, 

Old Time is still a flying, 
And this same flower that smiles to-day, 
To-morrow may be dying. 



164 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. There are six principal punctuation marks : 

1. The Comma , 

2. The Semicolon ; 

3. The Colon : 

4. The Period 

5. The Interrogation ? 

6. The Exclamation ! 

Generally the period marks the longest pause, 
the colon marks the next longest, the semicolon the 
next and the comma the shortest. The pause value 
of the interrogation and the exclamation is variable, 
and sometimes longer and sometimes shorter. They 
serve rather to warn the reader about the proper 
inflection of voice than anything else. 

8. In addition to the above, there are several 
other marks : 

7. The Apostrophe 

8. The Quotation 

9. The Dash — 

10. The Parenthesis ( ) 

11. The Bracket [ ] 



PUNCTUATION. 



165 



12. The Caret 

13. The Diaeresis 

14. The Hyphen 

15. The Continuation 
The Cedilla 



V 



Several of the above have only a single use, but 
that is one of some importance and will be stated 
at the proper place. 



166 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



THE COMMA. 

9. The word komma means, in Greek, a part cut 
off. It is applied, in punctuation, to the smallest 
division of a sentence and so to the sign which 
makes the smallest division — the comma. 

10. The Comma has two great uses. (1) To 
mark ellipsis (omission) and (2) to separate any 
part of the sentence which is in any way detached 
in meaning from the rest. 

11. Ellipsis. — The comma is employed to mark 
the omission of a word (generally a noun or pro- 
noun or a verb, or both) ; as, In London we heard 

we heard 

fine music ; in Paris, better. Robert is the brighter 

is 

boy ; John, the better student. The black cloth 

cloth costs on the 

costs a dollar ; the blue, two dollars. January, 10th. 
In the following sentences supply the ellipsis : 

1. To err is human ; to forgive, divine. 

2. London, April, 10th., 1890. 

3. Thomas caught nine fish; Henry, seven. 

4. August is the hottest month; January, the coldest. 

5. The valiant soldiers received praises: the cowardly, pun- 
ishment. 

6. My horse is lame; yours, sound. 

7. In May we have flowers; in September, fruits. 



PUNCTUATION. 167 



Write ten sentences illustrating ellipsis marked by 
the comma. 

12. Parenthetical Forms. — The comma is em- 
ployed to cut off words and phrases that are not 
necessary to the structure of the sentence. These 
are said to be used parenthetically, and they either 
indicate some unexpressed idea that the writer has 
in mind or they connect the sentence in which they 
stand with something that has gone before ; as, 
Above all things, we must speak the truth. Wil- 
liam was warned ; but, in spite of this, he did not 
study. When these parenthetical forms occur in the 
midst of the sentence, they must be cut off by two 
commas, as in the last example. Otherwise, they 
have one comma, as in the first. 

All these forms must be examined carefully to see 
if they are really parenthetical or only seemingly so. 

In the following exercise point out the paren- 
thetical expressions and give rule for the commas : 

1. Robert is, without doubt, the best boy I know. 

2. You can tell, to a certainty, the day of our coming. 

3. In fact, the king had not started at that time. 

4. This is the road to town, you know. 

5. As a matter of course, we shall do as you wish. 

6. We wish you would come, to be sure. 

7. He rode a fiery horse, consequently, he was thrown. 

8. I tell you, then, I will not go. 

9. He said, too, that you had deceived him. 

10. Then I told him I would not come. 

11. They said that they were too tired. 



168 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

13. Intermediate and Relative Expressions, 
not Restrictive. — The Comma is employed to cut 
off expressions that come between some essential 
words in the sentence, and to cut off relative clauses 
when they are not restrictive. When these expres- 
sions really restrict some essential word so as to 
form one idea with it, they are restrictive and are 
not cut off by commas. In the sentence, The man 
who would rule others must rule himself, the rela- 
tive clause, taken together with its antecedent man, 
forms one idea and that whole idea is the subject of 
the verb must. This clause is restrictive, and should 
not be cut off. In the sentence, The Alps, which 
are in Europe, are famous mountains, the relative 
clause is not restrictive, and should be cut off by 
commas. The sentence means, The Alps (and 
they are in Europe) are famous mountains. If this 
sentence were written without commas it would be, 
The Alps which are in Europe are famous moun- 
tains ; and it would indicate that there were some 
other Alps, not in Europe and not famous. Care 
should be taken to distinguish clearly between those 
clauses which are restrictive and those which are 
not. In some cases little difference in meaning is 
involved, but in many instances the distinction is 
very important. 

In the following exercise point out the interme- 
diate expressions and the relative clauses, and give 
rule for the commas : 



PUNCTUATION. 169 



1. The general, with all his soldiers, rode into the town. 

2. Kings, who are rulers of others, should rule themselves. 

3. The book, for want of proper care, soon fell to pieces. 

4. The bpy, who was standing on the bridge, witnessed the 
whole incident. 

5. Education, in its highest sense, includes many things. 

6. The queen, accompanied by all her ladies in waiting, 
was at the church. 

7. The love of money, which is the root of all evil, was his 
gravest fault. 

8. Those horses which were in the pasture have been sold. 

9. Robert, with many of his father's gifts, will never be his 
equal. 

Write ten sentences containing intermediate ex- 
pressions cut off by commas. 

Write ten sentences coutaining relative clauses 
which are restrictive. 

Write ten sentences containing relative clauses 
which are not restrictive. 

14. Dependent Clauses. — The cpmma is em- 
ployed to cut off dependent clauses unless their 
connection with the principal clause is extremely 
close, as in short sentences. 

In the following exercise point out the dependent 
clauses, and give rule for the commas : 

1. Touch a snake, and he will bite you. 

2. I could ride as well as you, if I had a bicycle. 

3. When we had started to town, it began to rain. 

4. Who can tell us where he is ? 

12 



170 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. If you do not write your exercise carefully, it will be full 
of errors. 

6. Though the price was high, he decided to buy the house. 
.7. I cannot hear what you say. 

8. We shall not have any holiday this year, though we have 
worked so hard. 

9. I may go if I choose. 

Write ten sentences containing dependent clauses 
properly cut off by commas. 

15. Several Co-ordinate Clauses. — The comma 
is employed to separate clauses of the same rank 
when, several of them occur in a sentence, unless 
the clauses themselves contain co7nmas. 

■ In the following exercise point out the co-ordinate 
clauses and give rule for the commas : 

1. Think justly, speak justly, act justly. 

2. The leader was dispirited, the army was in confusion. 

3. The lightning flashed, the thunder rolled, the rain poured 
down. 

4. We met the enemy, defeated them, and returned to 
camp. 

5. The citizens were reduced to misery, their food was 
gone, their water was impure, their dwellings were in ruins. 

6. We hurried to the city, saw the governor, got his consent, 
and came home at once. 

7. Edward caught the colt, bridled it, and leaped into the 
saddle. 



PUNCTUATION. 171 



Write ten sentences containing co-ordinate clauses 
properly cut off by commas. 

16. Expressions and Words in a Series. — The 

comma is employed to separate expressions and 
words when several come together, and have the 
same use in the sentence ; as, Reading, spelling, 
writing, are our first lessons. The darkening sky, 
the sobbing wind, the gathering gloom, announced 
the storm. 

(a) If the expressions are all short and a con^ 
junction is used, the comma is omitted ; as, Health 
and wealth are the rewards of industry. Early to 
bed and early to rise, etc. 

(b) Some of the conjunctions may be omitted and 
the comma used instead ; as, The night was gloomy, 
dark and cold. 

(c) If the conjunction is used before the last ex- 
pression, the comma is omitted after it ; as, Read- 
ing, writing and spelling are our first lessons. The 
darkening sky, the sobbing wind, and the gathering 
gloom announced the storm. 

(d) In such forms as, The beautiful blue Danube, 
the comma should be used between the adjectives or 
not according as you mean that the Danube is 
beautiful, and the Danube is blue ; or that the blue 
Danube is beautiful. Ordinarily the comma is not 
needed. 



172 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(e) If there is but one word in the sentence after 
the series, the last word of the series does not take 
a comma after it ; as, Henry rode a large, spirited, 
vicious horse. 

In the following exercise point out the words and 
expressions forming a series and give rule for the 
commas : 

1. The attentive pupil, the careful teacher, the pleasant 
room, contribute to the school's success. 

2. To keep the heart pure, to keep the life clean, to store 
the mind with knowledge, are high aims in life. 

3. Splendid orators, wise philosophers, great generals and 
gifted poets made Greece the most famous country in the 
world. 

4. The pale face, the quivering lip, and the tattered dress 
all aroused our sympathy. 

5. The horses were fleet, strong, full of fire. 

6. The general was brave, honest and fortunate. 

7. The day on which we started was cold, damp, cloudy 
and disagreeable. 

Write ten sentences containing expressions and 
words, in series, properly cut off by commas. 

17. Words and Phrases in Pairs. — The comma 
is employed to separate words or phrases used in 
pairs and to cut them off from the rest of the sen- 
tence ; as, Want and idleness, competence and in- 
dustry, go hand in hand. The sick and the well, 
the strong and the weak, the rich and the poor, went 
out to hear him. 



PUNCTUATION. 173 



In the following exercise point out the words and 
phrases in pairs and give rule for the commas : 

1. Vice and ignorance, poverty and extravagance, misery 
and carelessness, belong together. 

2. Powder and ball, horses and carts, food and clothing, 
were lacking for the men. 

3. His most distinct qualities were, honor and good breed- 
ing, truth and consideration for others. 

4. The brave and the cowardly, the reckless and the pru- 
dent, the unhurt and the wounded, took shelter from the 
storm of shells. 

5. Women and children, men and horses, wagons and can- 
non, were piled in hopeless disorder. 

6. Lawyer and client, doctor and patient, teacher and pupil, 
are all interested in this affair. 

Write five sentences containing words or phrases 
in pairs, properly cut off by commas. 

18. Inverted Clauses, etc. — The comma is em- 
ployed to separate a clause or a phrase or an in- 
finitive which has been moved from its natural posi- 
tion to the beginning of the sentence ; as, Alarmed 
by the noise, he rushed to the house. So in making 
lists of names, when the last name is put first, it is 
cut off by a comma ; as, Smith, John William. 

In the following exercise point out the inverted 
forms and give rule for the commas : 

1. Springing to his feet, the soldier seized his spear. 

2. Having called his comrades to his side, he ran out of the 
tent. 



174 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. To tell the truth, we never supposed you would come. 

4. Looking carefully upward, the guide saw a small, tough 
root. 

5. To obtain an education, one should submit to many 
hardships. 

6. Determined to succeed, the merchant rebuilt his store. 

7. Driving his new horses to the sleigh, William made the 
journey quickly. 

8. To confess our real belief, we do not consider him honest. 

9. Disappointed in this scheme, the king turned his atten- 
tion to another. 

10. Jones, Thomas S., Judson, William C, King, Robert E., 
Long, James A. 

11. Having gained the summit of the hill, we saw a glorious 
scene. 

Write ten sentences containing inverted forms 
properly cut off by commas. 

19. Brief Quotations. — The comma is some- 
times employed before a quotation, especially if the 
quotation is a very short one or if it is interrupted 
by the words of the writer; as, " Well ! " said the 
old man, " I cannot understand this." 

20. Apposition. — The comma is employed to 
cut off a noun or pronoun in apposition ; as, Samuel 
Johnson, one of the greatest of Englishmen, lived 
long in obscurity. 

If the apposition noun or pronoun is very simple 
in form it makes, practically, a compound with the 



PUNCTUATION. 175 



leading noun and no comma is needed ; as, James 
the blacksmith shod my horse. 

A title used with a name should be separated by 
a comma ; as, John Smith, Esquire. 

In the following exercise point out the appositions 
and give rule for the commas : 

1. William Shakespeare, the greatest writer in the world, 
was an Englishman. 

2. Smith, the old carpenter, was put into prison. 

3. Hugh saw His Grace, the Archbishop of York. 

4. Robert the coachman upset the carriage. 

5. This is Captain Wilkes, commander of the troop. 

6. The voters elected Thomas judge. 

7. Turner, the great landscape painter, has left many ex- 
amples of his skill. 

Write ten sentences containing appositions prop- 
erly cut off by commas. 

21. Nominative Independent and Absolute. 

The comma is employed to cut off independent 
nominatives and absolute constructions from the 
rest of the sentence ; as, John, come here. When 
we reached the fence, the gate being locked, we 
climbed over. 

In the following exercise point out the independent 
and absolute constructions and give rule for the 
commas : 



176 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. We had to come back, the bridge having fallen. 

2. William, close the door, if you please. 

3. Being delayed by the storm, we did not reach home in 
time. 

4. Boys, hurry through with your tasks. 

5. The train having left, the stranger started afoot. 

6. The storm having delayed us, we did not reach home in 
time. 

Write five sentences containing independent nomi- 
natives and five containing absolute constructions, 
properly cut off by commas. 

22. In Letters. — The comma is the simplest and 
best mark to use after the "salutation," although 
several others are employed ; as, Dear sister, Dear 
sir, etc. The plural of sir is sirs and not " gen tie- 
men." 




"^5 



PUNCTUATION. 177 



THE SEMICOLON, 

23. The word semicolon means the half of a 
colon. The sign suggests a pause midway in length 
between that of the comma and that of the colon, 
and marks a division of the sentence larger and 
more complex than that marked by the comma, and 
shorter and more simple than that marked by the 
colon. 

24. Compound Sentences.— The semicolon is 
employed to separate the members of compound 
sentences if any or all of these members contain 
commas ; as, We came home ; but, however, we did 
not find our friend. 

Sometimes, when the members are long and 
involved, a colon is used between them. When 
they are short and closely related, a comma may be 
employed. 

In the following exercise point out the members 
separated, and give rule for the semicolon : 

1. Histories make men wise; poets, witty; logic and rheto- 
ric, able to contend. 

2. Let us not wait for dinner; go, serve it quickly. 

3. Death, as the Psalmist saith, is certain to all; all must die. 

4. Yesterday, as I was going home, I saw a knife in the 
path ; I picked it up and found that it was mine. 

5. Dangers, by being despised, grow great ; so they do by 
absurd provision against them. 

Write ten compound sentences having their prin 

cipal divisions made by the semicolon. 



178 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

25. Particular Forms Dependent on a Gen- 
eral Form. — The semicolon is employed to sepa- 
rate clauses and expressions having a common 
relation to the same form. The particulars are cut 
off from that on which they depend by a colon. 
When the particulars are very simple, they may be 
separated by commas and cut off from that on which 
they depend by a semicolon. 

In the following exercise point out the particulars 
and the clause, etc., to which they are all related, 
and give rule for the semicolon : 

1. There are three things for you to attend to: get the 
books ; have the horse shod ; post the letters. 

2. We were especially struck with these points about the 
hotel : the attention to our comfort; the excellence of the fare; 
the politeness of the servants. 

3. In his speech for the new college he told us : that we 
should be liberal in our gifts; that we should be hearty in our 
support; and that we should be satisfied with small results at 
first. 

4. There are four genders in English Grammar, masculine, 
feminine, neuter and common. 

5. We objected to about everything we experienced in that 
city; the cold, the dampness, the dirt. 

Write five sentences containing particulars sepa- 
rated by semicolons and cut off from the general 
form by colons. 

Write five sentences containing particulars sepa- 
rated by commas and cut off from the general form 
by semicolons. 



PUNCTUATION. 179 



26. Clauses Having a Connection in Sense 
Alone. — The semicolon is employed to separate 
clauses when several of them have a connection in 
sense which, however, is not formally expressed. 

The colon is often used in the same way. 

In the following exercise point out the clauses 
which are related, and give rule for the semicolons : 

1. Henry sprang upon his horse ; he dashed the spur into 
its flank; he rushed madly down the pathway. 

2. He clinched his teeth; he closed his eyes; the dreadful 
leap was taken. 

Write five sentences having a connection in sense 
alone between the clauses. Separate clauses by 
semicolons. 

27. Before As. — The semicolon is employed 
before as, when it introduces an example ; the 
comma follows as. A noun is a name ; as, John, etc. 



"*S&r> y&jJB* '^fW "fljltfe 



180 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



THE COLON. 

28. The word Kolojt means a member (an impor- 
tant member of the body ; as, an arm). It is used 
in punctuation to denote the largest division of the 
sentence made by any mark and, so, the mark itself. 

29. The Added Clause. — The colon is employed 
to cut off a clause added to a sentence already com- 
plete ; as, Be honest : it will pay you. 

When a connecting word is used with the added 
clause, the semicolon is used to cut it off; as, Be 
honest ; for it will pay you. 

In the following exercise point out the added 
clauses, and give rule for the colons, etc. : 

1. James could not climb the tree ; yet he continued to try. 

2. Come at night : I can give you more time then. 

3. Do not keep that ; for it is not yours. 

4. Write him at once : he will answer your letter. 

Write five sentences containing added clauses cut 
off by colons and five containing added clauses cut 
off by semicolons. 

30. Formal Phrases. — The colon is employed 
to cut off such phrases as, To be brief, To continue, 
To conclude, etc., when they begin a paragraph and 
refer to all of it. 



PUNCTUATION. 181 

31. Compound Sentences. — The colon is em- 
ployed to separate the members of a compound 
sentence if any or all of their members contain 
semicolons (see Article 24) ; as, He contracted 
debts, without the means of payment ; he made 
promises, having no prospect of fulfilling them : 
thus, he accumulated a burden which he could never 
shake off. 

Write five compound sentences containing colons 
properly used. 

32. Quotation. — The colon is employed before a 
direct quotation and before a list of particulars in- 
troduced by such words as, thus, as follows, etc. ; as, 
Hey wood said : " Rome was not built in one day." 
The ordinary divisions of time are these : first, the 
year ; second, the month ; third, the week, etc. 

If the quotation is a very long one it is usual to 
add a dash to the colon, thus, : — . 

If the quotation is short a comma is often em- 
ployed before it. 

Write five sentences containing quotations prop- 
erly cut off by colons. 

Write five sentences containing lists of particulars 
properly cut off by colons. 

33. The Responsives. — The colon is employed 
after yes and no when a continuation follows ; as, 
Yes : we will come. No : you cannot go. If a 



182 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

nominative independent follows the responsive, the 
colon comes after the nominative and the responsive 
is followed by a comma ; as, Yes, madam : I can 
go. No, sir : we did not do it. 

Write ten sentences containing the responsives 
properly cut off by colons or by commas. 




«V 




PUNCTUATION. 18a 



THE PERIOD. 

34. In Greek it was common for a sentence to 
begin with the subject and to close with the predi- 
cate. By this means the two were brought together 
in the reader's mind and a sort of circuit was made. 
Periodos, a circular track, represented this idea ; and 
the term was used for a set of words that made 
complete, rounded, sense. It was then transferred 
to the mark that cuts off the complete sentence. 
The word continues to be used in rhetoric in its old 
sense. The period was the earliest of the punctua- 
tion marks, and it is easy to fancy that the forms of 
many of the others were based upon that of the 
period. 

The uses of the period are not numerous, and are 
so simple that they need only to be stated. 

35. Complete Sentence. — The period is em- 
ployed after complete sentences. Sometimes writers 
might differ as to the point at which the sentence is 
to be considered complete, but whenever it is com- 
plete the period must cut it off. 

36. Abbreviations, etc. — The period is em- 
ployed after abbreviations and titles of books, etc. ; 
as, Eng. for England, Va. for Virginia. 

In its use with shortened forms the period does 
no more than mark the fact of abbreviation. Other 



184 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

punctuation must be employed as if the period were 
not used. 

If an abbreviation close the sentence, the period 
is not repeated. 

In some words which are greatly used in their 
abbreviated forms the period is not employed. 

The title pages of this or of any other book will 
sufficiently illustrate the use of the period in titles 
of books, etc. 

Write ten sentences containing periods properly 
used with abbreviations. 



PUNCTUATION. 185 



THE INTERROGATION. 

37. The interrogation or question mark (inter rogo % 
to ask, questio, a. question) is employed after direct 
questions ; as, Can we do this ? The portion of the 
sentence cut off by the interrogation mark is gener- 
ally the same as that cut off by the period, and hence 
a capital is commonly employed after it. This mark 
is sometimes employed after a single word when it 
is used ironically ; as, William is a good (?) fellow. 

In the part of the sentence cut off by it, the 
interrogation mark is sometimes equal to a colon or 
to a semicolon or to a comma. 

When but one question stands in the construction, 
the interrogation mark has the force of a period, and 
closes the sentence. 

When several questions follow each other in the 
same construction, the interrogation mark has a 
force less than that of the period, and the sentence 
continues through all the questions ; as, Must we 
submit to robbery ? to extortion ? to violence ? 

In cases of difficulty the question may be decided 
by recasting the interrogative sentence and making 
it declarative. Then it may be seen whether the 
interrogation marks take the place of periods or of 
colons, etc. 

38. Some sentences, declarative in form, are in- 
tended as questions, and should be followed by the 

13 



186 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

interrogation mark ; as, You are well ? You cannot 
come with us ? 

Some questions — rhetorical — are questions in 
form only. In meaning they are exclamatory, and 
may have either the interrogation or the exclamation 
mark. 

39. The tone in which a question is asked indi- 
cates much about the nature of the question and 
about the answer expected. Commonly, questions 
which contain negative predicates expect the answer, 
Yes ; as, Did you not do this ? Strong accent on 
the subject indicates that the answer, No, is ex- 
pected ; as, Did Henry do this ? etc. The interro- 
gation mark would be more serviceable if it had 
been placed at the beginning of the sentence 
instead of at the end. 

Write ten sentences illustrating the use of the 
interrogation mark. 




PUNCTUATION. 187 



THE EXCLAMATION. 

40. The exclamation mark (exclamo, to cry out) 
must be employed at the end of expressions in- 
tended to indicate strong emotion ; as, Help ! the 
house is falling ! In some cases two points are 
used together. The exclamation is sometimes em- 
ployed after a word to show that its use is ironical ; 
as, The gentleman (!) who could so hurt a child, 
etc. (See 37.) 

When several interjections occur together they 
may take the mark after each one ; as, Fie ! fie ! fie ! 
you should not do that ; or, 

They may take a comma between them and the 
exclamation mark at the end of the sentence ; as, 
Fie, fie, fie, you should not do that ! or, 

They may take a comma between them and the 
exclamation mark after the last one ; as, Fie, fie, fie ! 
you should not do that. 

The proper position of the exclamation mane may 
be decided by settling how much of the sentence is 
exclamatory and placing the mark after that part. 

The interjection O should not have an exclama- 
tion mark after it. It should be used only with the 
nominative independent to call the attention of the 
person addressed. 

Write ten sentences illustrating the use of the 
exclamation mark. 



188 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



THE APOSTROPHE. 

42. The apostrophe is, in form, a comma, but it 
is placed above the word with which it belongs. It 
is employed, somewhat as the comma is, to mark 
omission (see Article 11) ; as, e er for ever, etc. 
The most common use of the apostrophe is with 
the possessive case. (See Article 9 in the Gram- 
mar.) It is also employed in forming the plural 
of letters and figures ; as, A's, c's, 2's, 3's, etc. 

Write ten sentences illustrating the use of the 
apostrophe. 

THE QUOTATION MARK. 

43. Quotation is the use by one writer of the 
exact words of another, and it is marked by enclos- 
ing the borrowed expression within quotation marks. 
These signs are sometimes called guillemets, from 
the name of their French inventor. 

44. When the connection is close between the 
quotation and the words which introduce it, the 
quotation does not begin with a capital ; as, I wrote 
me that, " it was raining all day Sunday and no one 
could go out." 

When a quotation is formal, or when a stanza of 
poetry is quoted, it is common to begin it with a 
capital. 



PUNCTUATION. 189 



45. When a quotation is inside another quotation, 
it is cut off by semi-quotation marks ; as, William 
wrote, "I saw a man, 'black as Erebus,' creep 
down the stairs." 

There is no end to the complication which might 
arise from placing one quotation within another and 
that within another, etc. No rule can be stated for 
all these cases. 

46. In quoting the substance of a statement 
without desire to reproduce its exact form, the 
quotation is frequently enclosed in semi-quotation 
marks. When several quotations are made con- 
secutively, the mark is placed at the beginning of 
each, but at the end of the last one only. 

47. The quotation mark is often employed to 
show the ironical use of a word. (See 37.) 

48. When the latter part of the quotation mark 
comes at the same place with some other punctua- 
tion mark, that mark is included in the quotation 
mark if it punctuates the words of the quotation ; 
but, if it punctuates the entire quotation with refer- 
ence to the rest of the sentence, the mark includes 
the quotation mark. 

Write ten sentences illustrating the use of the 
quotation mark. 



190 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



THE DASH. 

49. The dash is of comparatively recent origin, 
but it is employed to such extent by careless 
writers, to save the thought necessary for exact 
punctuation, that it has assumed some of the func- 
tions of the other marks. The dash has certain 
valuable uses of its own, and it would be well to 
confine it strictly to those uses. 

50. Omission of Words. — The dash is employed 
to mark omission of words, etc. ; as, In the town 
of . In the year 18 — . 

51. Repetition. — The dash is employed before a 
repetition made for rhetorical effect ; as, Hear the 
fate of Carthage — of Carthage, once the mistress 
of a continent — of Carthage, once the rival of proud 
Rome. This rhetorical repetition is called the Echo. 

52. Change of Construction. — The dash is em- 
ployed to mark sudden change of construction ; as, 
The traitor, the murderer, the thief — the same dark 
doom awaits them all. 

53. Sudden Change of Thought. — The dash is 
employed to mark sudden change of thought, or to 
mark interruption or hesitation even when there is 
no break in the construction ; as, Brimful of wrath — 
and cabbage. The general was energetic, accom- 
plished, far-sighted — but a coward. I wish I could 
aid you, — but — but — I cannot, 



PUNCTUATION. 191 



54. Expressions Leading to a Conclusion. — The 
dash is employed before a concluding clause when 
a number of expressions, all tending towards it, 
come before ; as, His uncommon learning, his rare 
gentleness, his unexampled courage — all these have 
made him what he is. 

55. Parenthesis. — -The dash is often employed to 
cut off parenthetical forms ; as, The day — never 
long at this season — closed before we finished. Its 
use denotes that the included words have less con- 
nection with the construction than forms cut off by 
commas and more connection than forms cut off by 
the parenthesis mark. It is, of course, difficult in 
some cases to choose among the three methods of 
marking parenthesis. 

In cases in which the parenthesis may be left out 
without the sentence's requiring any punctuation at 
that place, no mark except the dash is needed. In 
cases where the omission of the parenthesis would 
necessitate punctuation, the proper mark must be 
employed in addition to the dash. 

56. Question and Answer. — The dash is employed 
to separate question and answer when they are 
placed on same line ; as, Where is Paris ? — In 
France, etc. 

57. Following Other Marks. — The dash is em- 
ployed after the other marks to lengthen the pause 



192 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

which they indicate. This use may be seen in sev- 
eral of the articles above. 

Write ten sentences illustrating the use of the 
'ash. 

THE PARENTHESIS. 

58. The word parenthesis in Greek means some- 
thing inserted, and it is applied to matter placed, by 
way of explanation or comment, in the midst of a 
sentence with which it has no grammatical connec- 
tion ; as, Milton's Poems (London Publishing Com- 
pany). John (that is my boy's name) is a good 
student, etc. From the thing itself the name has 
been transferred to the marks which indicate this 
insertion. 

Commas and dashes also denote a sort of paren- 
thesis, but the parenthesis mark is to be employed 
when the matter inserted is most disconnected from 
the construction in which it stands. 

59. The words enclosed in parenthesis marks 
should be those of the writer, and, in this respect, 
the use of these marks differs from that of the 
bracket. This distinction is, however, not strictly 
observed. We frequently see, in reports of speeches, 
the use of the parenthesis for remarks made by the 
audience, and we often see the use of brackets to 
enclose the writer's own words. The distinction is 
shown in the following sentence, supposed to be 
taken from the report of a speech : Mr. President, 



PUNCTUATION. 193 



the time has come (here a voice interrupted the 
speaker) when we shall no longer be in bondage 

[Hear ! Hear !] to those errors which have ruled 
our past. [Good ! Good !] The time has come 
(cheers), etc. 

60. Parenthesis marks do not take the place of 
punctuation. All the other marks which would be 
needful if the parenthesis were omitted must be 
used with it. Illustrations are given below of the 
position of other points with regard to the paren- 
thesis mark. 

(a) William (he was always careless of his com- 
pany) soon got into trouble in London. Here the 
omission of the parenthesis would leave a sentence 
which would demand no punctuation. There is, 
consequently, none used with the parenthesis. 

(b) If you are ill, William, (I judge from your 
face that you are) you can go home. Here the 
omission of the parenthesis would leave a sentence 
containing an independent nominative which should 
be cut off by commas. It is so cut off. 

(c) If ever you see John again (and who knows 
but you may do so ?), tell him, etc. Here the omis- 
sion of the parenthesis would leave a dependent 
clause which would have to be cut off by a comma; 
as the parenthesis is connected with the dependent 
sentence, the comma is placed after the parenthesis. 

Write ten sentences illustrating the use of the 
parenthesis mark, 



194 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



THE BRACKET. 

61. The bracket is employed to enclose the 
words of some person other than the writer. These 
words can have no grammatical connection with the 
sentence. Its principal use is to enclose correc- 
tions or additions made by one writer to the words 
of another. The bracket is frequently used by 
editors to indicate that the words enclosed are 
probably not the words of the author. 

62. In dictionaries the bracket is employed to cut 
off certain parts of the statement made about a 
word. 

In printing plays, the bracket is employed to cut 
off the stage directions. 

In lines of poetry which are too long for the 
space, the extra words are put at the end of the 
line, above or below, and cut off by a bracket. 

63. The statement of the use of other punctua- 
tion marks with the parenthesis will apply to their 
use with the bracket. 

Write ten sentences illustrating the use of the 
bracket. 

64. THE CARET.— The caret (Latin caret, it 
is lacking) is employed to call attention to the fact 
that a word has been omitted. The word is inserted 



PUNCTUATION. 195 



to 



above the line; as, He is coming town soon. 
The same mark has a valuable use in prosody. 

65. THE DIURESIS.— The diaeresis is em- 
ployed over either of two vowels to show that it 
does not make one syllable with the vowel by its 
side ; as, coordinate. 

66. THE HYPHEN.— The hyphen is em- 
ployed to make compound words ; as, work-horse, 
etc. There is some tendency to omit the hyphen 
and to form single words of the compounds, but 
this can probably never take place with such words 
as forget-me-not, etc. The cardinal numbers show- 
ing tens and units ; as, twenty-one, ninety-nine, are 
commonly written with the hyphen. The mark 
would have disappeared from them long ago if it 
had not been saved by the fact that few of the hasty 
writers, who do so much to destroy the niceties of 
words, take time to write out numerals at all, but 
commonly express them by figures. 

67. The hyphen is employed when part of a word 
ends one line and the rest has to be carried to the 
line below. In this case the word should be divided 
so as not to part a syllable. 

68. The hyphen has no little value, as a diacritical 
mark, to determine the sense of words with which 
it is used. Compare the phrases, much-valued 
china and much valued china, many-tinted clouds 
and many tinted clouds. 



196 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

69. THE CONTINUATION.— A line of 
periods placed after an incompleted sentence marks 
the break in it and is suggestive of what should 
follow; as, Drowsily the little lips murmured, " Our 
Father which art " and the baby fell asleep. 

70. THE CEDILLA.— The cedilla is employed 
to give to the letter c, when it occurs before a, o, u, 
the sound of s. The sign is written under the letter 
and is employed in only a few words ; as, garcon, 
etc. 

71. Besides the above there are numerous other 
marks found in printed matter. These, however, 
have no use in punctuation, as is really the case 
with some of those already mentioned. (See cedilla, 
caret, etc.) 

Following is a list of these additional marks : 

The tilde (~) written over n gives the Spanish 
sound ny as in canon. 

The breve (u) and macron (-) mark syllables as 
short or long. 

The accents ; acute ('), grave ('), circumflex (^) 
direct pronunciation or inflection of the voice. 

The index (b^~) points out something important. 

The brace ({) unites several things to be consid- 
ered together. 



PUNCTUATION. 197 



The paragraph (If) is found in old books to mark 
the beginning of a paragraph. 

The double comma (,,) is used to continue a word 
immediately above it. 

The reference marks : star (*), dagger (•}•), double 
dagger (J), section (§), parallel line (||), are used to 
mark notes for reference. Where notes are numer- 
ous, figures are commonly employed. 




INDEX. 



Sec. 

A, An . 47 

Absolute Nominative . . 31 

Abstract Noun 1,6 

Active Voice . . . ... 12, 94 

Adjective, 45, 48, 60, 62, 

96, 101-102 
Adverb, 31, 63-64, 66-73, 

89, 100, 102 
Adverbial Objective ... 31 

Alms 6 

Analysis . 34,etc 

Antecedent 40, 41, 95 

Anticipative Pronoun . . 39 

Any 50 

Apposition ....... 31 

Article 47, 97 

Artificial Gender .... 2 

Attributive Adjective . . 45 

Auxiliary Verb 25 

Barring 78 

Be 25, 27, 30 

But 40 

By 94 

Can 25, 27 

Cardinal 48 

Case 4, 7, 42 

Clause 43-44, 111 

Cognate Object. 31 

Collective Noun 1, 103 

Common Gender .... 2 

Common Noun 1 

Comparison of Ad j ective, 

1, 54-57 
Comparison of Adverb . 1, 67 



Sec. 
Comparative Degree, 54, 

62, 72, 98 

Complement 62 

Complex Sentence (p. 15) 114 
Compound Noun ... 6, 50, 60 
Compound Pronoun ... 40 
Compound Sentence (p. 15) 114 

Concerning 78 

Conjugation . . . . 1, 24, 27-29 

Conjunction 1, 85-89 

Conjunctive Adverb . . 66 
Coordinating Conjunc- 
tion 85 

Context 6 

Correlative 87 

Declension 1, 7, 10 

Defective Verb 25 

Definite Article 47 

Degrees of Comparison . 54-57 
Demonstrative Adjective 48 
Demonstrative Pronoun, 38 
Dependent Clause (p. 15) 111 

Direct Object 31, 94 

Direct Narration .... 113 

Distributives 48 

Do 25, 27, 30 

Dozen 51 

During . . . 78 

Each other 49 

Eaves 6 

Ellipsis 91 

Else 50 

Emphatic Conjugation . 30 
Etymology 32 



INDEX. 



199 



£'EC. 

Excepting 78 

Exclamations 1, 82-84 

Feminine Gender .... 2 

Finite Verb . . . 13 

Future Perfect Tense . . 16-17 

Future Tense 15, 17 

Gender 2 

Gerund 103 

Grammatical Gender . . 2 

Grammatical Predicate . 108 
Grammatical Subject . . 107 

Have 25, 27 

Idiom • . 91 

Imperative ...... 13, 30, 32 

Impersonal Verb .... 26 

Indefinite Adjective . . 48, 96 
Indefinite Article .... 47 

Independent Nominative 31 

Indicative , 13, 30 

Indirect Object 31, 94 

Indirect Narration . . . 113 

Infinitive 13, 92 

Inflection 1 

Pronoun 36 

Interjection 1, 82-84 

Interrogative Adjective . 48 
Interrogative Adverb . . 66 
Interrogative Conjugation 30 
Interrogative Pronoun . 37 
Intransitive Verb .... 19, 31 
Irregular Comparison . . 55, 68 
Irregular Construction . 91 

Irregular Verb 22, 27 

It 39 

Its 36 

Limiting Adjective . . . 45-46 
Logical Predicate .... 108 

Logical Subject 107 

Masculine Gender ... 2 



Sec. 

Material Noun 1 

May 25, 27 

Mood 11, 13 

Must 25, 27 

Natural Gender 2 

Need 103 

Negative 30 

Neuter Gender 2 

No, None ......... 50 

Nominative Absolute . 31 
Nominative Case 7, 8, 10, etc 
Nominative Independent 31 
Notwithstanding .... 78 

Noun 1, 31, 90 

Number 4, 6, 11, 18 

Numeral 48, 51 

Object 31, 94 

Objective Adverbial . . 31 
Objective Case . 7, 8, 10, 80, 94 

Of . . 94 

One, Another 49 

Ordinal 48 

Own 59 

Pair 51 

Paradigm 7 

Parsing 33-34, etc 

Participle 30, 103 

Particle 1 

Parts of Speech .... 1 

Passive Voice 12, etc 

Past Participle 103 

Past Perfect Tense . . . 16-17 

Past Tense 15, 17, 30 

Person ' Nouns) 4-5 

Person (Pronouns) .... 5 

Person (Verbs) ... 11, 18, 28 
Personal Pronoun . . . . 36, 95 

Personification 2 

Phrase 61, 69 



200 



PRIMARY ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Sec. 

Plural Number 6, 10 

Positive Degree 54 

Possessive Case . 7, 9, 10, 31. 93 

Potential Mood 13, 30 

Predicate . . 11, 32, 106 

Predicate Adjective . 45, 62, 96 

Predicate Noun 31, 92 

Preposition . . . . 1, 9, 31, etc 
Present Participle . 30, 92, 103 
Present Perfect Tense . .16-17 
Present Tense .... 15, 17, 30 
Principal Clause . ... (p. 15) 
Principal Parts of Verb . 23 

Principal Verb 25 

Progressive Conjugation 30 
Pronominal Adjective . 48-50 
Pronoun, Anticipative . 39 
Pronoun, Demonstrative 38, 48 
Pronoun, Indefinite ... 48 
Pronoun, Intensive ... 36 
Pronoun, Interrogative . 37, 48 
Pronoun, Personal . . .36, 95 
Pronoun, Reflexive ... 36 
Pronoun, Relative . . 40-41, 95 
Proper Noun ..... 1,6 

Proposition 11, 32 

Qualifying Adjective . . 45, 52 

Rather 68 

Redundant Verb .... 25 

Reflexive Pronoun ... 36 
Regarding .... . . 78 

Regular Comparison . 54-56, 67 
Regular Construction . . 91 

Regular Verb 22, 28 

Review 10, 34, etc 



Sec. 
Relative Adverb .... 66 

Respecting 78 

Relative Pronoun .... 40 

Responsives 65 

Riches 6 

Save 78 

Sentence (p. 15) 32, 41 

Shall 25, 27 

Simple Adverb 66 

Simple Sentence .... (p. 15) 
Singular Num er .... 6, 10 
Subject . 11, 31-32, 92, 103, etc 
Subjunctive Mood . 13, 86, 104 
Subordinating Conjunc- 
tion 85 

Superlative Degree,54, 62, 73, 99 

Strong Words 6 

Syntax 31-32, 91, etc 

Tense 11, 14-15 

That 40 

The 47 

There 39 

To 95 

Touching 78 

Transitive Verb 19 

Unipersonal Verb .... 26 

Variables 88-90 

Verb 11, 19, 89, 103 

Voice H-12 

Weak Words 6 

What 40 

Which 40 

Who 40 

Will 25, 27 

Yes, No 65 



DEC 19 1899 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



003 232 045 4 



